Communications Question

Instruction for Persuasion Application Paper:

Objective: The purpose of this assignment is to analyze a mass-produced persuasive message from real-life communication.Requirements: The assignment requires you (1) to choose and describe a mass-produced persuasive message (e.g., a print advertisement, a commercial, a political debate etc., 1 page maximum), (2) to identify and explain at least three different theories and concepts that are related to the message, (3) to apply the theories and concepts to the message (e.g., how do the theories explain the message? what’s the implication for the field or the industry?, you could address 2 and 3 separately by describing all the theories and concepts followed by separate paragraphs with your application, or together by explaining the theories and concepts at the beginning of each paragraph followed by your application in that paragraph, for at least 3 pages), and (4) to include a short conclusion paragraph.   2
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Persuasion
Now in its sixth edition, Persuasion: Social Influence and Compliance Gaining continues to
boast an accessible voice and vibrant aesthetic that appeals to undergraduate students of
communication, psychology, advertising, and marketing. In addition to presenting established
theories and models, this text encourages students to develop and apply general conclusions
about persuasion in real-world settings. Along the way, students are introduced to the
practice of social influence in an array of contexts (e.g., advertising, marketing, politics,
interpersonal relationships, social media, groups) and across a variety of topics (e.g.,
credibility, personality, deception, motivational appeals, visual persuasion). The new edition
features an expanded treatment of digital and social media, up-to-date research on theory and
practice, and enhanced discussions of topics such as political campaigning, emotional
marketing, olfactory influence, and ethics. Instructors can also use the book’s downloadable
test bank, instructor’s manual, and PowerPoint slides in preparing course material.
Robert H. Gass is Professor Emeritus of Communication Studies at California State
University, Fullerton, USA.
John S. Seiter is Professor in the Department of Languages, Philosophy, and
Communication Studies at Utah State University, USA.
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Persuasion
Social Influence and Compliance Gaining
Sixth Edition
Robert H. Gass
John S. Seiter
5
Sixth edition published 2018
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
The right of Robert H. Gass and John S. Seiter to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in
accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition published by Pearson Education, Inc. 2002
Fifth edition published by Routledge 2016
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Names: Gass, Robert H., author. | Seiter, John S., author.
Title: Persuasion : social influence, and compliance gaining /
Robert H. Gass, John S. Seiter.
Description: Sixth edition. | New York, NY : Routledge, 2018.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017042512| ISBN 9781138630598 (hardback) |
ISBN 9781138630611 (pbk.)
Subjects: LCSH: Persuasion (Psychology) | Influence (Psychology) |
Manipulative behavior.
Classification: LCC BF637.P4 G34 2018 | DDC 153.8/52—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017042512
ISBN: 978-0-8153-5821-3 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-138-63061-1 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-20930-2 (ebk)
Typeset in Sabon
by Florence Production Ltd, Stoodleigh, Devon, UK
Visit the eResource: www.routledge.com/9781138630611
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To Banjo and Julep, my two English Setters, who keep me
company when I’m writing at home.
Bob Gass
To Miss Gordon, my second-grade teacher, for knowing that
self-concept is the proper starting place.
John Seiter
To our families—Susan, Jordan, Graham, Debora, Dean,
Andy, and Christian—for doing without us when we were
writing and for putting up with us when we weren’t.
Robert Gass and John Seiter
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Contents
Preface for the Sixth Edition
Acknowledgments
1. Why Study Persuasion?
Aims and Goals
Persuasion Is Not a Dirty Word
Persuasion Is Our Friend
The Pervasiveness of Persuasion: You Can Run but You Can’t Hide
Tipping Points, Buzz Marketing, and Word of Mouth
Nudges: Sometimes Less Is More
New Persuasion: Digital and Online Influence
eWOM: Digital Buzz
Sponsored Content: The Native Advertisers Are Getting Restless
Opinion Mining and Sentiment Tracking: I Feel You
Gamification: You’ve Got Game
Crowdsourcing and Crowdfunding: Lending a Helping Hand
Persuasive Technology: My Heart Says Yes, but My Watch Says No
Persuasion in the Sciences
Persuasion in the Arts
Other Not-So-Obvious Contexts for Persuasion
Weird Persuasion
Persuasion in Interpersonal Settings
Five Benefits of Studying Persuasion
The Instrumental Function: Be All That You Can Be
The Knowledge and Awareness Function: Inquiring Minds Want to Know
The Defensive Function: Duck and Cover
The Debunking Function: Puh-Shaw
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Well-Being and Self-Worth: I Feel Good
Two Criticisms of Persuasion
Does Learning About Persuasion Foster Manipulation?
Are Persuasion Findings Too Inconsistent or Confusing?
Ethical Concerns About the Use of Persuasion
2. What Constitutes Persuasion?
Pure Versus Borderline Cases of Persuasion
Limiting Criteria for Defining Persuasion
Intentionality
Effects
Free Will and Conscious Awareness
Symbolic Action
Interpersonal Versus Intrapersonal
A Model of the Scope of Persuasion
The Context for Persuasion
A Working Definition of Persuasion
So What Isn’t Persuasion?
Dual Processes of Persuasion
The Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion
The Heuristic Systematic Model of Persuasion
The Unimodel of Persuasion
3. Attitudes and Consistency
What Is an “Attitude” in 20 Words or Less?
So How Do You Measure the Durn Things?
Explicit Measures: Self-Report Scales
Visually Oriented Scales
Pitfalls in Measuring Attitudes
Implicit Measures: What’s Rattling Around Inside Your Brain?
More Roundabout Ways of Measuring Attitudes
Physiological Measures of Attitude
The Reasoned Action Approach (RAA)
Behavioral Beliefs and Attitudes: Believe It or Not
Normative Beliefs: It’s What the Cool Kids Are Doing
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Perceived Behavioral Control: I Got This
The Persistence of Attitudes
Attitudes as Associative Networks: Your Mind Is a Web
Manufacturing Favorable Associations: Jiggling the Web
Brands and Branding: That’s the Life
Who Are You Wearing? Brand Personality
Authenticity: Keeping It Real
Cause-Related Marketing: The Feel-Good Factor
Sloganeering
Sponsorship
Psychological Consistency
The Inner Peace of Consistency
Methods of Maintaining Consistency
Marketing Strategies: How to Have Your Cake and Eat It Too
Brand Loyalty: Accept No Substitute
Write and Tell Us Why You Love This Book in 24 Words or Less
Marketing Inconsistency
Capitalizing on Inconsistency
Cognitive Dissonance Theory (CDT)
Cognitive Dissonance and Buyer’s Remorse
Polarization of Alternatives
Cognitive Dissonance, Self-Image, and Culture
Factors That Affect the Magnitude of Dissonance
Dissonance and Persuasion: Putting It All Together
Forbidden Fruit: Psychological Reactance
Counterattitudinal Advocacy: Playing Devil’s Advocate
I’m All In: Increasing Commitment
Commitments Can “Grow Legs”
4. Credibility
Celebrity Selling Power: The Answer Is in the Stars
The Match-Up Hypothesis: Why Jonah Hill Should Not Be Revlon’s Spokesperson
Catch a Falling Star
What Is Credibility?
Credibility Is a Receiver-Based Construct
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Credibility Is a Multidimensional Construct
Credibility Is a Situational/Contextual Phenomenon
Credibility Is Dynamic
The Factor Analytic Approach to Credibility
Primary Dimensions of Credibility
Secondary Dimensions of Credibility
The Factor Analytic Approach and the Real World
Credibility as a Peripheral Cue
It’s What’s Up Front That Counts
The Sleeper Effect
Credibility and Image Management
Interpersonal Credibility, Impression Management, Facework, and Accounts
Strategies for Enhancing Credibility: Get Your Mojo Working
5. Communicator Characteristics and Persuasion
Demographic Variables and Persuasion
Age and Persuasion: Pretty Please With Sugar on Top
Gender Differences and Persuasion: The Times, They Aren’t a-Changin’
Ethnicity, Culture, and Persuasion: “Me” and “We” Perspectives
Intelligence and Persuasion: Dumb and Dumber
Psychological and Communication States and Traits
Self-Esteem and Persuasion: Feelin’ Kinda Low
Anxiety and Persuasion: Living in Fear
Preference for Consistency: I Wouldn’t Change a Thing
Self-Monitoring and Persuasion: Periscope Up
Ego Involvement: Not Budging an Inch
Issue Involvement: What’s This Have to Do With Me?
Dogmatism, Authoritarianism, and Social Vigilantism: You Can’t Teach an Old Dog New Tricks
Narcissism: How Do I Love Me? Let Me Count the Ways
Cognitive Complexity and Need for Cognition
Persuasion and Aggression: Sticks and Stones
Analyzing and Adapting to Audiences
Pay Attention to the Situation
Keep Your Audience’s Mind in Mind
Remember the Importance of Audience States and Traits
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Don’t Forget About Audience Demographics
6. Conformity and Influence in Groups
Conformity as Persuasion: In With the Crowd
In the Beginning: Early Research on Conformity Effects
Variables Related to Conformity
Social Proof: Using the Sheep Factor to Persuade Others
Ostracism: Shuns and Guns
Deindividuation, Social Loafing, and Social Facilitation: Getting Lost in the Crowd
What a Riot: An Examination of Deindividuation
Social Loafing: Not Pulling Your Own Weight
Social Facilitation: Would You Rather Be Alone?
How Groups Affect Decision Making: To Risk or Not to Risk
7. Language and Persuasion
Symbols, Meaning, and Persuasion: The Power of Babble
Connotative and Denotative Meaning: That’s Not How I See It
Ultimate Terms: Speak of the Devil
Aphorisms and Familiar Phrases: That Rings a Bell
Metaphors: One and the Same
The Power of Labeling
Euphemisms and Doublespeak: Making the Worse Appear the Better and Vice Versa
Language Intensity, Vividness, and Offensiveness
##@!!!!##: Profanity and Persuasion
Political Correctness
The Effects of Vividness: A Picture’s Worth a Thousand Words
Language Intensity
Powerless Language and Persuasion: Um’s the Word
8. Nonverbal Influence
The Direct Effects Model of Immediacy
Types of Nonverbal Communication
Kinesics: Head, Shoulders, Knees and Toes, Knees and Toes
Haptics: Reach Out and Touch Someone
Keep Your Distance? Proxemics and Persuasion
Chronemics: All Good Things to Those Who Wait?
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Artifacts and Physical Features of the Environment: Dress for Success
Physical Appearance: Of Beauties and Beasts
Paralinguistics and Persuasion: Pump Up the Volume?
9. Structuring and Ordering Persuasive Messages
Implicit and Explicit Conclusions: Let Me Spell It Out for You
Gain-Framed Versus Loss-Framed Messages: Keep on the Sunny Side?
Quantity Versus Quality of Arguments: The More the Merrier?
The Use of Evidence: The Proof’s Not in the Pudding
Repetition and Mere Exposure: You Can Say That Again
Order Effects and Persuasion: First Things First
Primacy and Recency Effects: The First Shall Be Last, and the Last Shall Be First
An Ounce of Prevention: Inoculation, Message-Sidedness, and Forewarning
Inoculation Theory: Of Needles and Arguments
One-Sided Versus Two-Sided Messages: Both Sides Now
Forewarning: You’d Better Watch Out
10. Compliance Gaining
Actions Speak the Loudest: A Definition of Compliance Gaining
In the Beginning: The Roots of Compliance-Gaining Research
Situation: The “It Depends” of Compliance-Gaining Behavior
Seeking Compliance From Strangers and Intimates
Power, Legitimacy, and Politeness
Who Are You? Individual Characteristics and Compliance-Gaining Behavior
The Study of Compliance-Gaining Goals: Eyes on the Prize
How Goals Bring Meaning to Compliance-Gaining Situations: What’s It All About, Alfie?
Primary and Secondary Goals: Wanting and Eating Your Cake
Problems Facing Compliance Research: Trouble in Paradise
Compliance Gaining in Action: Seeing Is Believing
11. Sequential Persuasion
Pregiving: The Old “I’ll-Scratch-Your-Back-if-You’ll-Scratch-Mine” Approach
Why Is the Pregiving Tactic Persuasive?
Foot in the Door: The “Give-Me-an-Inch-and-I’ll-Take-a-Mile” Tactic
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Why Is a Foot in the Door So Persuasive?
When Does a Foot in the Door Work?
The Door-in-the-Face Tactic: “Ask for the Stars”
Why Is a Door in the Face So Persuasive?
When Does a Door in the Face Work?
The That’s-Not-All Tactic: Seeking Compliance by Sweetening the Deal
The Low-Ball Tactic: Changing the Deal
Why Lowballing Works
“Sorry, We Don’t Have Any More of Those in Your Size, But…”: The Bait-andSwitch Tactic
The Disrupt-Then-Reframe and Pique Techniques: I’m So Confused
Legitimizing Paltry Contributions: Even a Penny Will Help
The Evoking Freedom Technique: “…But You Are Free to Accept or Refuse”
Fear-Then-Relief and Happiness-Then-Disappointment Procedures: The Emotional
Roller Coasters of Social Influence
12. Deception
What Is Deception? Lies and Damn Lies
Telling Lies: The Enactment of Deception
Theoretical Frameworks
What Makes a Liar Persuasive?
Detecting Deception: I Can See Right Through You
Factors That Influence Detection
13. Motivational Appeals
Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Motivation
Emotion and Persuasion: Oh, What a Feeling!
Emotions and the ELM
Emotional Marketing
Logical and Emotional Appeals: A Fuzzy Distinction
Fear Appeals: If You Don’t Stop Doing That, You’ll Go Blind
The Stage Model: Scared Stiff
The Extended Parallel Process Model: Nothing to Fear but Fear Itself
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Negative Emotions: Woe Is Me, Shame on You
Humorous Appeals: Stop Me if You’ve Heard This One
Humor as an Indirect Form of Influence: All Kidding Aside
Self-Disparaging Humor: LOLing at Yourself
But Is Humor Persuasive?
Maximizing Humor’s Potential
Pride and Patriotism: Turning Red, White, and Blue Into Green
For Mature Audiences: Sex Appeals
How Sex Sells
Caveats and Cautions
Warmth Appeals: Straight From the Heart
Ingratiation: Polishing the Apple
Mixed Emotions: Other Appeals and Combinations of Appeals
14. Visual Persuasion
Image Is Everything
Overlooked and Under-Appreciated
The Power of Images: A Thousand Words
How Images Persuade
Iconicity: Bearing a Resemblance
Indexicality: Seeing Is Believing
Syntactic Indeterminacy: Don’t Look for Logic in Images
The Art of Persuasion Includes Art as Persuasion
The Paintbrush Is Mightier Than the Sword
Art and Social Change: I Must Protest
Cinematic Persuasion: Sex, Drugs, and Popcorn
Acting Out: How Movies Persuade
Images in Advertising: And Now a Word From Our Sponsors
Visual Extravaganzas: Now You’ve Got My Attention
Anti-Ads: You Can’t Fool Me
Image-Oriented Advertising: Materialism as Happinessv
Shock Ads: Edgy Images as Persuasion
Photojournalism as Persuasion: The Camera Does Lie
Playing Tricks With the Camera: Photographic Deception
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15. Esoteric Forms of Persuasion
Color as Persuasion: The Grass Is Always Greener
Color Coded at Birth: Dyed in the Wool
Colorful Associations: A Blonde Walks Into a Bar…
Color and Branding: Big Blue, Red Bull, and Pink (Victoria’s Secret)
Color and Emotion: Mood Indigo
Color and Behavior: Hue Made Me Do It
Subliminal Influence: Hidden Messages or Hokum?
The Laboratory Versus the Real World
What Is and Isn’t Subliminal
Subliminal Advertising: Much Ado About Nothing
Subliminal Priming: That Rings a Bell
Not So Fast: Limitations of Subliminal Priming
Subaudible Messages: The Power of Suggestion
Backward Masking and Reverse Speech: Turn Me On, Dead Man
What Advertisers Really Do
Neurolinguistic Programming: The Emperor’s New Clothes
Music as Persuasion
Music as a Central and Peripheral Cue
Music in Advertising and Sales
Background Music: Shop Till You Drop
Music Videos and Persuasion: Is Hip-Hop Harmful?
Weaponizing Music: What a Buzz Kill
Cautions: Face the Music
Aroma and Persuasion
Perfume: Romance in a Bottle
Love Stinks
Ambient Aromas: Something Special in the Air
Caveats and Qualifications
16. The Ethics of Persuasion
Is Persuasion in General Unethical?
The Motives Color the Means
Ethics, Culture, and the Issue of Central Versus Peripheral Processing
Ethical Questions That Can’t Be Answered Through the Study of Persuasion
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Our Approach: Characteristics of Ethical Influence
Ethics and Our Model of Persuasion
Persuaders as Lovers
Bunglers, Smugglers, and Sleuths
Ethical Issues Arising From Previous Chapters
Ethics and Credibility
Ethics and Communicator Characteristics
Ethics and Deception
Ethics of Using Threats as a Compliance-Gaining Strategy
Ethics and Fear Appeals
Ethics and Emotional Appeals
Ethics and Ingratiation
Ethics and Visual Persuasion
Ethics and Subliminal Influence
Author Index
Subject Index
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Preface for the Sixth Edition
P
ERSUASION CONTINUES TO OCCUPY the attention of academics and nonacademics alike.
Not only scholars, but practitioners such as advertisers, lawyers, lobbyists, marketing
firms, motivational speakers, politicians, public relations experts, social activists, syndicated
columnists, and others have a vested interest in knowing how persuasion works. Therefore,
students who aspire to careers in any of the “people professions” would be wise to acquire a
basic understanding of how persuasion functions.
With each edition of this text, we marvel at how much persuasion changes over time, yet
still remains the same. For example, controversies over “fake news” have altered the way
people perceive facts and assess source credibility. Even so, credibility remains as central to
the process of persuasion as ever. It is perceived credibility that counts. The credibility of news
sources is in the eye of the beholder.
The observation that “the more persuasion changes, the more it remains the same” applies
to almost every aspect of persuasion. Compliance-gaining strategies such as the “foot in the
door” now occur in online settings. Audience analysis is key to persuasion, but rather than
examining demographic data, persuaders can now use microtargeting to tailor their messages
to niche groups. For example, in the 2016 presidential election, rumors swirled that
Cambridge Analytica, a company that specializes in opinion mining and data analysis,
identified low-information voters in key swing states and bombarded them with highly
targeted messages (Confessore & Hakim, 2017). Product placement, once only found on
television and in movies, is now prevalent in novels, pop music, and virtual environments
such as computer games. Fear appeals, long a staple of persuaders, have moved online. In
addition to being fearful of Ebola, terrorism, and clowns, we can now be worried about
cyberstalking, cyberbullying, and whatever diet and nutrition advice Gwyneth Paltrow is
about to post.
In this edition, we address the increasing importance of digital and online persuasion,
while emphasizing the importance of traditional forms of persuasion as well. Since the last
edition, digital persuasion has come into its own. On social media, pop-up ads and banners
have given way to more sophisticated forms of marketing, such as webtracking (Avergin,
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2016). Using third-party cookies, canvas fingerprinting (Kirk, 2014), and other techniques,
Web marketers can follow users’ activities across websites. “Like” a bluegrass video on
YouTube, “follow” a fiddle player on Facebook, or post some banjo pictures on Instagram,
and you’ll start getting messages about hoedowns and honky-tonks in your area.
Persuasion on the Web also relies on sentiment tracking or opinion mining. For example,
using natural language processing software, millions of tweets can be analyzed to see what
topics, people, or brands are trending and what emotion-laden words or emojis are being used
in connection with those topics or issues. Insights about political preferences, brand images,
and economic trends can be gleaned from the results. As Bannister (2015) noted, “shifts in
sentiment on social media have been shown to correlate with shifts in the stock market”
(para. 3).
The widespread use of mobile technology has also been accompanied by increasing apps
and techniques designed to influence. Texting, tweeting, and other apps disseminate wordof-mouth (WOM) messages. WOM is perceived by many as more genuine, authentic, and
trustworthy than commercial advertising or expert opinions. Of course, marketers can sneak
into these conversations via sponsored tweets and promoted posts. In many ways, social
media has become a form of mass interpersonal persuasion. Posting a picture on Instagram may
seem interpersonal in nature, but posts can be shared far beyond one’s social network. Just ask
Anthony Weiner.
Despite the advent of digital and social media, most of us still live in a face-to-face world,
too. Traditional forms of influence still matter, and interacting “in person” is by far the most
effective way to persuade other people. A retail salesperson talking to a customer has a much
greater chance of success than a pop-up ad reminding you about the last item you viewed on
Amazon.com. That said, we often underestimate our effectiveness in one-on-one-settings.
For example, Roghanizad and Bohns (2017) found that when people were asked to judge
their influence via email versus in person, they overestimated the former and underestimated
the latter. Groups, too, exert enormous influence over people. Whether within a family, a
classroom, a workplace, at a coffee shop with friends, or some other group setting, the
pressure to conform or risk being isolated is potent. Mass persuasion has greater reach, but
less effectiveness.
As long as humans occupy planet Earth, they will be engaged in persuading one another.
If apes or machines do take over one day, who can say? For now, we believe a solid
understanding of persuasion, social influence, and compliance gaining will be an asset in this
world. With that in mind, we hope you catch our enthusiasm for this field of study and turn
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the pages of this book with a better understanding of how persuasion functions, an improved
knowledge of ways to maximize your own persuasion efforts, and a greater ability to resist
influence attempts, especially unscrupulous influence attempts, by others.
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REFERENCES
Avergin, J. (2016, September 2). Internet tracking has moved beyond cookies. FiveThirtyEight.com. Retrieved on July 26,
2017 from https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/internet-tracking-has-moved-beyond-cookies/
Bannister, K. (2015, January 26). Understanding sentiment analysis: What it is & why it’s used. Brandwatch.com. Retrieved
on July 26, 2017 from www.brandwatch.com/blog/understanding-sentiment-analysis/
Confessore, N., & Hakim, D. (2017, March 6). Data firm says “secret sauce” aided Trump: Many scoff. The New York
Times. Retrieved on July 26, from www.nytimes.com/2017/03/06/us/politics/cambridge-analytica.html
Kirk, J. (2014). Three devious ways online trackers shatter your privacy. PCWorld, 32(10), 38–40.
Roghanizad, M. M., & Bohns, V. K. (2017). Ask in person: You’re less persuasive than you think over email. Journal of
Experimental Social Psychology, 69, 223–226. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2016.10.002
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Acknowledgments
We would like to offer our heartfelt thanks to everyone at Routledge/Taylor & Francis for
their support throughout the process of completing this edition of our text. They are a skilled
and talented group. We are especially grateful to Laura Briskman and Nicole Salazar for their
relentless graciousness in answering our many questions and guiding us through the
requirements for completing this project. Their patience is officially legendary. We also want
to thank Josh Curtis and members of his team for painstakingly proofreading and copyediting
the drafts of all the chapters.
We are also extremely grateful to the graduate and undergraduate students who offered
numerous illustrations of real-life examples of persuasion. In particular, we single out Taylor
Halverson for her excellent work. Every time we think we have taught the brightest group of
students ever, another sharp group comes along. We also want to thank the many instructors
using our book who have sent comments and suggestions for this edition, as well as the many
short-course participants who have offered ideas and insights leading up to this edition.
Finally, we are fortunate to be working alongside the best colleagues anyone could ever
hope for. Thank you all for making “work” a fun and rewarding place to be!
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CHAPTER 1
Why Study Persuasion?
Aims and Goals
Persuasion Is Not a Dirty Word
Persuasion Is Our Friend
The Pervasiveness of Persuasion: You Can Run but You Can’t Hide
Tipping Points, Buzz Marketing, and Word of Mouth
Nudges: Sometimes Less Is More
New Persuasion: Digital and Online Influence
eWOM: Digital Buzz
Sponsored Content: The Native Advertisers Are Getting Restless
Opinion Mining and Sentiment Tracking: I Feel You
Gamification: You’ve Got Game
Crowdsourcing and Crowdfunding: Lending a Helping Hand
Persuasive Technolog: My Heart Says Yes, but My Watch Says No
Persuasion in the Sciences
Persuasion in the Arts
Other Not-So-Obvious Contexts for Persuasion
Weird Persuasion
Persuasion in Interpersonal Settings
Five Benefits of Studying Persuasion
The Instrumental Function: Be All That You Can Be
The Knowledge and Awareness Function: Inquiring Minds Want to Know
The Defensive Function: Duck and Cover
The Debunking Function: Puh-Shaw
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Well-Being and Self-Worth: I Feel Good
Two Criticisms of Persuasion
Does Learning About Persuasion Foster Manipulation?
Are Persuasion Findings Too Inconsistent or Confusing?
Ethical Concerns About the Use of Persuasion
O
NE OF THE AUTHORS was enjoying a day at the beach with his family. As he sat in a
folding chair, lost in a good book, he could hear the cries of seagulls overhead and the
pounding of the surf. Nothing was bothering him. He was oblivious to the world around him.
Or so he thought. As he reflected more on the situation, however, he became aware that he
was being bombarded by persuasive messages on all sides. A boom box was playing a few
yards away. During commercial breaks, various ads tried to convince him to choose a new
cellphone provider, switch auto insurance companies, and try a hot, spicy cheeseburger. A
nearby sign warned that no alcohol, glass objects, or smoking were permitted on the beach. A
plastic bag in which a nearby family’s children had brought their beach toys advertised
Walmart on its side. The family picnic cooler proudly displayed its manufacturer, Igloo, as
well.
And that was only the beginning. A plane flew overhead, trailing a banner that advertised
a collect calling service. The lifeguard’s tower displayed a Hurley logo. Their swimsuits were
sponsored by Izod. The lifeguard’s truck, a specially equipped Toyota, announced that it was
the “official emergency vehicle” of “Surf City USA,” a moniker trademarked by the city of
Huntington Beach, California. Oh, the indignity of being rescued by an unofficial vehicle.
There were oral influence attempts, too. His son tried to lure him into the water by saying,
“Come on, it’s not that cold.” But he knew better. His son always said that, no matter how
cold the water was. “Would you mind keeping an eye on our things?” the family next to the
author’s asked. I guess our family looks trustworthy, he thought. His wife asked him, “Do you
want to walk down to the pier? They have frozen bananas.” She knew he would be unable to
resist the temptation.
And those were only the overt persuasive messages. A host of more subtle messages also
competed for the author’s attention. A few yards away, a woman was applying sun block to
her neck and shoulders. The author decided he’d better do the same. Had she nonverbally
influenced him to do likewise? Nearby, a young couple was soaking up the sun. Both were
wearing hats with the Nike “swoosh” logo. Were they “advertising” that brand? A young man
24
with a boogie board ran by, headed for the water. His head was shaved and he sported a
goodly amount of body art. Did his appearance advocate a particular set of values or tastes?
Was he a billboard for an “alternative” lifestyle? A half dozen male heads turned in unison as
a trio of bikini-clad women walked by. Were the males “persuaded” to turn their heads or was
this simply an involuntary reflex? Two tan, muscular dudes were tossing a Frisbee back and
forth. Both had six-pack abs. The author made a mental note to do more sit-ups. There
seemed to be as many persuasive messages, or potentially persuasive messages, as there were
shells on the beach.
The preceding examples raise two important issues. First, persuasion and social influence
are pervasive. We are surrounded by influence attempts, both explicit and implicit, no matter
where we are. As Cascio, Scholz, and Falk emphasize (2015):
social influence is omnipresent, occurring through implicit observation of cultural
norms, face-to-face and mediated interpersonal communication, as well as mass
mediated communication. Even though individuals are often unaware of the power of
social influence, research shows its effects on behavior in a wide variety of
circumstances.
(p. 51)
Second, it is difficult to say with any certainty what is and is not “persuasion.” Where
should we draw the line between persuasion and other forms of communication? We address
the first of these issues in this chapter. Here we examine the pervasive nature of persuasion
and offer a rationale for learning more about its workings. In the next chapter, we tackle the
issue of what constitutes persuasion and related terms such as social influence and compliance
gaining.
25
AIMS AND GOALS
This is a book about persuasion. Its aims are at once academic and practical. On the academic
side, we examine how and why persuasion functions the way it does. In so doing, we identify
some of the most recent theories and findings by persuasion researchers. On the practical
side, we illustrate these theories and findings with a host of real-life examples. We also offer
useful advice on how to become a more effective persuader and how to resist influence
attempts, especially unethical influence attempts, by others.
If learning how to persuade seems a bit manipulative, remember, we don’t live in a society
populated with unicorns and rainbows. The real world is brimming with persuaders. You can
avoid learning about persuasion, perhaps, but you can’t avoid persuasion itself. Besides, we
can’t tell you everything there is to know about persuasion. Nobody knows all there is to
know about this subject. One of the points we stress throughout this book is that people
aren’t that easy to persuade. Human beings are complex. They can be stubborn,
unpredictable, and intractable, despite the best efforts of persuaders.
Persuasion is still as much an “art” as it is a “science.” Human nature is too complicated,
and our understanding of persuasion too limited, to be certain which influence attempts will
succeed and which will fail. Think how often you flip the channel when a commercial costing
millions of dollars to produce and air appears on television. As one advertising executive put
it, “half the money I spend on advertising is wasted … but I don’t know which half” (cited in
Berger, 2011, p. 1). Think how many candidates for public office have spent fortunes
campaigning, only to lose their elections. Or think how difficult it is for the federal
government to convince people to stop smoking, practice safe sex, or avoid texting while
driving—behaviors that are in their own self-interest.
The science of persuasion is still in its infancy. Despite P. T. Barnum’s axiom that “there’s
a sucker born every minute,” people are uncannily perceptive at times. It is tempting to
believe that if one only knew the right button to push, one could persuade anybody. More
often than not, though, there are multiple buttons to push, in the right sequence, and the
sequence is constantly changing. Even so, persuasion is not entirely a matter of luck. Much is
known about persuasion. Persuasion has been scientifically studied since the 1940s.1 Written
texts on persuasion date back to ancient Greece.2 A host of strategies and techniques have
been identified and their effectiveness or ineffectiveness documented. Persuaders are a long
way from achieving an Orwellian nightmare of thought control, but a good deal is known
26
about how to capture people’s hearts and minds. Before proceeding further, we want to
address a common negative stereotype about persuasion.
27
PERSUASION IS NOT A DIRTY WORD
The study of persuasion has gotten some bad publicity over the years. Everyone seems to
agree that the subject is fascinating, but some are reluctant to embrace a field of study that
conjures up images of manipulation, deceit, or brainwashing. There is, after all, a sinister side
to persuasion. Adolf Hitler, Charles Manson, Jim Jones, David Koresh, Marshall
Applewhite, and Osama bin Laden were all accomplished persuaders—much to the
detriment of their followers.3 We, however, do not think of persuasion as the ugly stepsister
in the family of human communication. Rather, we find the study of persuasion to be
enormously intriguing. Persuasion is the backbone of many communicative endeavors. We
can’t resist the urge to learn more about how and why it works. Part of our fascination stems
from the fact that persuasion is, on occasion, used for unsavory ends. It is therefore all the
more important that researchers learn as much as they can about the strategies and tactics of
unethical persuaders.
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PERSUASION IS OUR FRIEND
Persuasion isn’t merely a tool used by con artists, chiselers, charlatans, cheats, connivers, and
cult leaders. Nobel Peace Prize recipients and Pulitzer Prize-winning journalists are also
persuaders. In fact, most “professional” persuaders are engaged in socially acceptable, if not
downright respectable, careers. They include advertising executives, bloggers, campaign
managers, celebrity endorsers, clergy, congresspersons, diplomats, infomercial spokespersons,
lawyers, lobbyists, mediators, media pundits, motivational speakers, political cartoonists, press
secretaries, public relations experts, radio talk-show hosts, recruiters, salespersons, senators,
social activists, syndicated columnists, and whistleblowers, to name just a few.
Let’s focus on the positive side of persuasion for a moment. Persuasion helps forge peace
agreements between nations. Persuasion helps expose corruption and open up closed
societies. Persuasion is crucial to the fundraising efforts of charities and philanthropic
organizations. Persuasion convinces motorists to buckle up when driving or refrain from
driving when they’ve had a few too many. Persuasion is used to convince a substance-abusing
family member to seek professional help. Persuasion is how the coach of an underdog team
inspires the players to give it their all. Persuasion is a tool used by parents to urge children not
to accept rides from strangers or to allow anyone to touch them inappropriately. In short,
persuasion is the cornerstone of a number of positive, prosocial endeavors. Very little of the
good that we see in the world could be accomplished without persuasion.
Persuasion, then, is a powerful and often prosocial force. Having highlighted the positive
side of persuasion, we address the question of why the study of persuasion is so valuable. The
next section, therefore, offers a justification for the study of social influence.
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THE PERVASIVENESS OF PERSUASION: YOU CAN RUN BUT
YOU CAN’T HIDE
We’ve already mentioned one of the primary reasons for learning about this subject:
Persuasion is a central feature of every sphere of human communication. The same is true of
social influence. We can’t avoid it. We can’t make it go away. Like Elvis impersonators in Las
Vegas, persuasion is here to stay. Various estimates suggest that the average person is exposed
to anywhere from 300 to 5,000 messages per day.4 There are more ways to persuade than ever
before. Indeed, traditional persuasion in the form of political speeches, television
commercials, print ads, billboards, and product placements in movies and television is alive
and well. So too are protest marches, demonstrations, sit-ins, and other forms of symbolic
action. In the last two decades, social media has been added to the mix. You can submit
online reviews of products and services, post a YouTube video advocating your message,
engage in hashtag activism, advocate a cause via Facebook, Twitter, or Instagram, solicit
funding via crowdfunding platforms such as Kickstarter or GoFundMe, or promote change
through a website such as www.change.org or www.dosomething.org. Let’s consider one of
these pervasive strategies, known as viral persuasion, more closely.
Tipping Points, Buzz Marketing, and Word of Mouth
Key concepts and principles associated with viral persuasion were laid out by Malcolm
Gladwell in his bestseller, The Tipping Point (2000). Gladwell likens word-of-mouth
(WOM) to a virus through which a message is spread until the whole society is “infected.”
Based on what he calls “the law of the few,” a small number of influential people can generate a
groundswell of support for an idea, brand, or phenomenon. If a message gains sufficient
traction, it reaches a tipping point and becomes “contagious.” In order to reach the tipping
point, however, a number of things have to happen.
Über Influencers
First, the right kinds of people must be involved. Gladwell identifies three types of people
who are essential to the process. Mavens possess specialized expertise. They are in the know.
They may be celebrity chefs, fashionistas, fitness gurus, tech geeks, or wine snobs. Mavens
needn’t be rich or famous, but they must be ahead of the curve. They are the early adopters,
opinion leaders, or what some call alpha consumers, the ones who hear about ideas and try out
gadgets first. “One American in ten,” Keller and Barry (2003) maintain, “tells the other nine
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how to vote, where to eat, and what to buy” (p. 1).
In addition to mavens, Gladwell states that connectors are also essential. Based on the viral
metaphor, they are carriers. They have large social networks. When connectors learn from
mavens what the “next big thing” is, they spread the word. Since social circles tend to be
overlapping, forwarding messages spreads them increasingly outward from their epicenter.
The last type Gladwell identifies is salespeople. They receive the message from a connector
and then talk it up within their own circle of friends. Salespeople tell their friends, “You must
see this movie,” “You’ve got to try this restaurant,” or “You gotta read this book.”
FIGURE 1.1
ALS ice-bucket challenge in New York City.
Source: Saklova/Shutterstock.com
Orchestrating the Next Big Thing
In addition to having the right kinds of people, some additional conditions must be satisfied
for an idea to go viral. Context is critical. The idea must come along at the right time and
place. Twitter, for example, wouldn’t have worked before there was widespread mobile access
to the Internet. An idea also must possess stickiness, which means that it is inherently
attractive. Without some sort of natural appeal, people won’t gravitate toward the idea or pass
it along (Heath & Heath, 2008). For example, in 2014, the ALS water bucket challenge,
31
which dared people to dump ice water over their own or other people’s heads, went viral,
raising over $100 million in the USA alone (www.als.org). Its stickiness was based, in part,
on its eye-catching appeal, its urgency (there was a 24-hour deadline to respond), and the fact
that it was for a good cause.
Scalability is another requirement: It must be easy to ramp up production of the idea,
product, or message to meet demand. The ice-bucket challenge met this requirement because
almost everyone can find a bucket and some ice. Finally, effortless transfer is yet another
ingredient in the recipe for an effective viral campaign. A viral campaign has to leverage free
media. Ideas that can be spread by forwarding an email, including an attachment, or
embedding a link are easy to disseminate. The more time, effort, or money it takes to spread
the word, the less likely the idea will go viral. In the ice-bucket campaign, most challenges
were issued from one friend to another via video.
Infectious or Inexplicable?
Although viral marketing holds considerable potential, it is often a hit-or-miss strategy, with
far more misses than hits. What’s more, evidence for the effectiveness of tipping points is
largely anecdotal, and there is no guarantee that an idea will gain traction. If one does, its
shelf life is often limited. The ice-bucket challenge, for example, came and went in a few
months. And flash mobs, another approach to viral marketing, were a flash in the pan.
The Word of Mouth Marketing Association (WOMM) offers advice for conducting viral
campaigns. The very concept of viral marketing, however, is something of an oxymoron. A
viral campaign is planned to appear unplanned. It is contrived to seem genuine. As consumers
grow wise to the strategy, it will become less effective. There are also ethical questions about
using friends as shills. The FTC now requires any online endorsement that involves
compensation to be disclosed (Sprague & Wells, 2010).
Nudges: Sometimes Less Is More
The ubiquitous nature of persuasion is also illustrated by nudge theory, developed by Richard
Thaler and Cass Sunstein (2008). They maintain that subtle changes in the way choices are
presented to people can influence, or “nudge,” them to behave in certain ways. For example,
when men use a public restroom, they aren’t always neat and tidy. They often miss the mark,
to put it mildly, which increases janitorial costs significantly. To address this, folks at
Amsterdam’s Schiphol international airport gave men a target of their own. Specifically,
urinals were installed that included a stenciled image of a housefly near the drain. The result?
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Having a target made all the difference. The men’s aim improved considerably (Thaler &
Sunstein, 2008).
As another example, school cafeterias tried offering apples at lunch. Most of them wound
up in the trash can. However, when kids were given sliced apples, as opposed to whole apples,
they were 73 percent more likely to eat them (Schwartz, 2016). Similarly, when vending
machines listed the calories in snack foods, people were more likely to make healthier choices.
Although some critics have accused nudge theory of being paternalistic (Pasquale, 2015),
others (Sunstein, 2014) argue that people are free to resist nudges if they wish. Kids can still
throw apple slices in the trash. They are simply being provided with options that encourage
healthy behaviors (www.nudges.org). That said, some nudges may be perceived as more like
shoves. To encourage organ donors, for example, some countries have adopted a “presumed
consent” policy, meaning that a person must take the initiative to opt out if she or he does not
want to be an organ donor.
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NEW PERSUASION: DIGITAL AND ONLINE INFLUENCE
Some people seem to spend their every waking moment texting, tweeting, blogging, or
posting their views on all matter of subjects large and small. That said, social media isn’t just
an entertaining diversion, it is an important tool for influence. Whenever someone likes,
follows, posts, shares, tweets or retweets, forwards, or comments on a message, online
influence is taking place. Let’s consider a few forms of digital influence.
FIGURE 1.2
Persuasion is everywhere—even in the womb.
Source: Baby Blues © 2001, Baby Blues Partnership. King Features Syndicate. Reprinted with special permission.
eWOM: Digital Buzz
Earlier, we mentioned the importance of viral persuasion and word-of-mouth (WOM). Like
WOM, electronic word of mouth (eWOM) is all the rage. People actively comment on
brands, companies, political issues, and public figures via all manner of social media. By way
of illustration, Twitter alone accounts for 6,000 tweets per second or 500 million tweets per
day (www.internetlivestats.com). Eighty percent of Twitter users have mentioned brands in
their tweets and 54 percent of users report that they have acted based on tweets (Midha,
2014).
Like WOM, eWOM is most effective when it is perceived as genuine rather than
manufactured and peer driven rather than commercially sponsored. eWOM enjoys several
advantages over traditional advertising and marketing techniques (Erkan & Evans, 2016). It
operates largely through interpersonal channels (cellphone, email, texting), lending it an air of
authenticity. It is inexpensive compared to traditional media. And it is self-perpetuating.
Moreover, eWOM is far more effective than traditional media at reaching younger audiences.
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Sponsored Content: The Native Advertisers Are Getting Restless
The rise of social media has spawned a surge in advertising masquerading as genuine peer-topeer influence. For example, sponsored content includes promoted tweets and Instagram posts,
which are essentially paid advertisements. Native advertising involves ads posing as news
stories. Native ads function as “clickbait,” luring in readers with snappy headlines or
provocative photos. Both approaches are effective because many users have difficulty
distinguishing such content from genuine material (Wojdynski, 2016).
Opinion Mining and Sentiment Tracking: I Feel You
The Web is an opinion-rich environment. People constantly share their attitudes, opinions,
and values via social media. And marketers are listening. Many companies, for example, now
specialize in opinion mining and sentiment tracking by monitoring social media to gauge the
public’s mood in nearly real time (Ravi & Ravi, 2015). Sophisticated algorithms can track
how a person, brand, or issue is trending based, not only on the number of tweets generated,
but also on how favorable, neutral, or negative those tweets are (Kennedy & Moss, 2015; Lee,
Yang, Chen, Wang, & Sun, 2016). As an example, after analyzing over 10,000 online
mentions from auto-enthusiast websites, the Ford Motor Company adopted a three-blink
turn signal on all of its vehicles (Rosenbush & Totty, 2013).
As sophisticated as such methods seem, a problem with opinion mining is that the data is
often “squishy”—that is, the people commenting aren’t always articulate or coherent.
Furthermore, the tone of a message—that is, whether it is ironic, satirical, or hyperbolic—can
be hard for artificial intelligence to decipher. Nevertheless, programmers are getting better at
analyzing and interpreting words related to feelings, emotions, and opinions.
Gamification: You’ve Got Game
Parents have known for decades that one way to get infants to eat their vegetables is by
turning mealtime into a game. “Here comes the airplane,” the parent says with each spoonful
of strained peas. A modernized version of this approach, known as gamification, is being used
to stimulate consumer interest and involvement (McGonigal, 2011). Gamification applies
video-game methods to other contexts to increase consumer engagement. People like to play
games. They enjoy the competition. Why else would they spend hours on end playing Angry
Birds or Candy Crush? Games are entertaining, challenging, and rewarding. Transforming a
mundane task into a game can make it more fun and exciting.
Games also can be used to influence. Take exercise, for example. Thanks to a shoe sensor
35
that allows runners to post information about their running distance, time, and calories
burned, Nike+ provides customers with a fun way to socialize, compete, and “play” with each
other using downloadable apps (Are you game? 2011). What’s more, through points, badges,
leaderboards, and other incentives, gamification keeps people coming back for more. This
approach has been used to enhance education, improve workplace productivity, increase voter
turnout, and promote awareness and participation in social causes.
Gamification is not without its critics, however. Ian Bogost (2011), a professor and expert
in video games as cultural artifacts, cautioned that “‘exploitationware’ is a more accurate name
for gamification’s true purpose” (para. 12). Critics charge that earning badges and points
trivializes activities such as learning, working, exercising, or participating in social causes.
Crowdsourcing and Crowdfunding: Lending a Helping Hand
Moving a heavy object, like a piano, isn’t easy. To accomplish such a task, you might invite
some friends to pitch in. Similarly, crowdsourcing puts out an open call for anyone online to
participate in completing a task or solving a problem. Wikipedia was one of the earliest
crowdsourcing platforms (Lee & Seo, 2016). The online encyclopedia is collaborative.
Content can be contributed and edited by any one. Crowdsourcing is premised on the
assumption that wisdom is not the exclusive province of experts, but is distributed throughout
the commons (Kitter, 2010). As an example, Doritos invited consumers to participate in a
“Crash the Super Bowl” contest by generating their own ideas for a 30-second commercial
(for examples, got to www.youtube.com/watch?v=8vVIUBU1gZs). As another example,
Starbucks’s “White Cup Contest” contest solicited customers’ suggestions for a graphic
design for a limited edition coffee cup. Contestants posted their creations via
#WhiteCupContest.
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FIGURE 1.3
Persuasive messages must struggle to cut through the background of media clutter.
Source: Reprinted with permission: www.andysinger.com
While crowdsourcing has assisted in solving problems in astronomy, legislation, language
translation, and urban planning, among many areas, it is not without its critics. Detractors
complain that crowdsourcing is exploitative; it relies on the unpaid labor and efforts of others.
Another complaint is that the wisdom of the commons isn’t always so wise. For example,
when NASA asked people to submit names for a new section of the International Space
Station, the crowd chose “Colbert” (after the late-night comedian) over names like “Serenity,”
37
“Earthrise,” and “Tranquility.” NASA went with the name “Tranquility” anyway.
A related strategy, crowdfunding, involves raising money through online donations.
Websites such as Kickstarter, GoFundMe, and Indiegogo allow people to ask for donations
or start-up funds for a cause or business venture. On the plus side, crowdfunding gives “the
little guy” or a good cause the chance to be noticed. On the downside, some of the requests
are scams (Fredman, 2015) and most start-ups fail. The SEC recently adopted rules
regulating crowdfunding practices online.
Persuasive Technology: My Heart Says Yes, but My Watch Says No
Persuasive technology focuses on devices “aimed at changing users’ attitudes or behaviors
through persuasion and social influence, but not through coercion or deception” (Persuasive
Technology, 2016, para. 1). Smart devices and wearable technology “are not just persuasive
but specifically aimed at forging new habits” (MIT Technology Review, p. 64). Smartwatches,
for example, exhort wearers to take action via taps, vibrations, or other haptic cues (Gilmore,
2016). Got a big date coming up? An app developed by MIT can tell you if you sound
boring, nervous, happy, or sad based on your speech pattern (Lee, 2017). As an alternative,
you could always check to see if your date is asleep.
Fitness trackers not only track your daily step count, they also encourage you to exercise.
For example, Fitbit’s display shows a flower that grows or shrinks based on your activity level.
Taking that concept one step further, Nissan Leaf owners can view an LCD display of a pine
tree that grows as they drive more efficiently.
As part of the Internet of Things, smart pill bottles can remind people when to take their
medicine (Orji & Moffat, 2016). Skip a dose and a light will glow or a chime will sound,
followed by a text or phone-call reminder. For some patients, taking their medicine at the
right time each day is a matter of life and death. As many as 125,000 deaths per year and
$105 billion in medical costs are attributable to patients not taking medicine properly
(Ruggerio & Wick, 2016).
Persuasion will continue to play a major role in traditional contexts, such as advertising
and marketing. It is worth noting, though, that persuasion also plays a key role in a variety of
not-so-obvious contexts. We examine two such contexts next: persuasion in the sciences, and
persuasion in the arts.
38
39
PERSUASION IN THE SCIENCES
You may not think of them this way, but scientists are persuaders (Glassner, 2011). The
ongoing debate about climate change illustrates the persuasive challenge facing climatologists.
Despite widespread agreement among evolutionary biologists that evolution is a fact rather
than a theory, there is a continuing social controversy over the teaching of creationism
alongside evolution in public school curriculums. Even in fields such as chemistry,
mathematics, or physics—the so-called hard sciences— persuasion plays a major role.5
Scientists often have to convince others that their research possesses scientific merit and
social value. They also have to argue for the superiority of their theories over rival theories. In
this respect, Thomas Kuhn (1970) argues that all scientists employ “techniques of persuasion
in their efforts to establish the superiority of their own paradigms over those of their rivals”
(p. 151). Similarly, Mitroff (1974) comments that “the notion of the purely objective,
uncommitted scientist [is] naïve. … The best scientist … not only has points of view but also
defends them with gusto” (p. 120). Scientists must do more than conduct experiments and
report their results. They also must persuade other scientists, funding agencies, and the public
at large of the merits of their work.
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PERSUASION IN THE ARTS
Another not-so-obvious context for persuasion is the arts. Not all art is created “for art’s
sake.” Art serves more than an aesthetic or decorative function. Artists have strong opinions
and they lend expression to their opinions in and through their work. Consider film as an art
form, for example. Movies such as 12 Years a Slave, Life Is Beautiful, and Schindler’s List
demonstrate the power of the camera to increase awareness, change attitudes, alter beliefs,
and shape opinions. Other art forms have the capability to persuade as well. Playwrights,
painters, muralists, sculptors, photographers, and dancers give voice to their political and
social views through their art.
Think about painting for a moment. Many of the famous works hanging in museums were
created out of a sense of social conscience. Using images rather than words, artists comment
on social conditions, criticize society, and attempt to transform the social order. We examine
this issue in more detail in Chapter 14, but for now let’s consider one particular work of art,
Pablo Picasso’s Guernica. Through this painting, Picasso offered a moral indictment of war
and man’s inhumanity to man. The painting features people and animals, the victims of the
indiscriminate bombing of a Basque town during the Spanish Civil War, in various states of
agony, torment, and grief. As Von Blum (1976) notes, “the purpose of the painting is frankly
propagandistic. The artist’s intent was to point out the inhuman character of Franco’s fascist
rebellion” (p. 92). Picasso wasn’t trying to paint a “pretty” picture. He was making a moral
statement. The painting has been dubbed by one art historian “the highest achievement in
modernist political painting” (Clark, 1997, p. 39). Not only Picasso, but also many other
artists express persuasive points of view in and through their art.
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OTHER NOT-SO-OBVIOUS CONTEXTS FOR PERSUASION
Persuasion operates in a variety of other contexts, some of which are not so obvious. We
highlight a few here as illustrations. Social scientists have studied bumper stickers as a form of
political expression and as an unobtrusive means of measuring attitudes (Endersby & Towle,
1996; Sechrest & Belew, 1983). Scholars have examined the effects of intercessory prayer
(offered for the benefit of another person) on recovery from illness (Frank & Frank, 1991;
Hodge, 2007). Studies have examined the military’s use of social influence (Cialdini, 2011;
King, 2010). Other researchers have focused on 12-step programs, such as Alcoholics
Anonymous, and other support groups as forms of self-help and group influence (Kassel &
Wagner, 1993). Some studies have investigated terrorism as a form of persuasion by
examining how jihadists are radicalized and recruited and how effective the use of violence is
on the groups who are targeted (Bhui & Ibrahim, 2013; Iyer, Hornsey, Vanman, Esposo, &
Ale, 2015; Kydd & Walter, 2006). As Tuman (2010) observed, “the real goal of the
communicated message in terrorism may be persuasion: to persuade audience members that
chaos and fear will be their lot in life, to persuade them to pay attention to an issue they have
ignored” (p. 37). One scholar has written about compliance-gaining tactics found in dramatic
plays, such as Shakespeare’s Hamlet and Ibsen’s A Doll’s House (Kipnis, 2001). One of the
authors investigated various styles and strategies of panhandling to see which ones proved
most effective (Robinson, Seiter, & Acharya, 1992). Research on the study of robotic
persuasion is just beginning to emerge. One study found, for example, that having a robot
whisper instructions to people increased their motivation to perform a boring task
(Nakagawa, Shiomi, Shinozawa, Matsumura, Ishiguro, & Hagita, 2013). Another study
focused on the effect of robot-to-human touch as a method of compliance gaining (Shiomi,
Nakagawa, Shinozawa, Matsumura, Ishiguro, & Hagita, 2017).
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WEIRD PERSUASION
Sometimes persuasion is downright weird. A case in point involved Kensington, Canada,
where the police department threatened that any motorist arrested for drunk driving would be
subjected to Nickelback music while riding in the police cruiser to the station (Zenteno,
2016). When the story went viral, Colin Jost, the news co-host of Saturday Night Live, joked,
“Just make sure the crash kills you.” Ultimately, the policy was rescinded because the
seriousness of the message was obscured by the frivolousness of the strategy.
Yet another example of weird persuasion occurred in Mansfield, Nottinghamshire, UK.
The citizens wanted to stop rowdy teens from loitering at an underpass at night. Their
solution was to install street lights with a bright pink hue. Why pink, you ask? Pink light
highlights acne. Teens with blemishes didn’t want to be seen with bright, glowing acne. The
plan worked: The teens moved on (Spotty teens, 2009).
Scholars sometimes investigate quirky aspects of persuasion, too. Did you know that
participants in a study who consumed caffeine were more easily persuaded than participants
who had no caffeine (Martin, Hamilton, McKimmie, Terry, & Martin, 2007)? Now you do.
As long as the participants were motivated to pay attention to the message, caffeine
consumption increased agreement. Here is another strange finding: Washing one’s hands not
only produces cleaner hands, it also reduces a person’s sense of guilt (Kaspa, 2013). The
explanation for this is related to a phenomenon called embodied cognition, wherein physical
behaviors often affect higher mental states.
Other researchers found that mixed-handed people were more persuadable and more
gullible than purely left- or right-handed people (Christman, Henning, Geers, Propper, &
Niebauer, 2008). And Briñol and Petty (2003) discovered that asking people to nod their
heads up and down (as if in agreement) made them more agreeable than shaking their heads
back and forth (as if in disagreement). What is the point of such research, you ask? Such
studies illustrate both the complexities and subtle nuances of persuasion.
Persuasion, then, can be found in obvious and not-so-obvious places. Before concluding
this section, we examine one additional context in which persuasion occurs: the interpersonal
arena.
43
PERSUASION IN INTERPERSONAL SETTINGS
The extent of influence exerted in the interpersonal arena should not be underestimated.
Although we may think of Madison Avenue as all-powerful, face-to-face influence is far
more effective. Yet people tend to underestimate the effectiveness of in-person influence
compared to other communication contexts. One study, for example, found that people
making requests underestimated how successful face-to-face requests would be, compared to
email requests (Roghanizad & Bohns, 2017). Another study found that people tend to
underestimate their influence on others when it comes to questionable requests. Participants
were asked to estimate how successful they would be at convincing a stranger to commit a
minor act of vandalism (writing the word “pickle” on a page in a library book). Overall, 87
percent of the participants underestimated how persuasive they would be. On average, they
were twice as effective as they thought (Bohns, Roghanizad, & Xu, 2014).
Despite all the money spent on traditional advertising and the increasing amounts being
spent on new media, most influence attempts still take place in face-to-face settings. Some 90
percent of word-of-mouth recommendations, for example, take place offline (Moore, 2011).
On a daily basis we are bombarded with persuasive requests in the interpersonal arena. Your
brother wants you to hurry up and get out of the bathroom. A homeless person asks if you
can spare some change. Your parents try to talk you out of getting a tongue stud. Or worse
yet, your significant other uses the “F” word to redefine your relationship: That’s right; she or
he just wants to be “friends.” Aaahhh! Naturally, we persuade back as well, targeting others
with our own entreaties, pleadings, and requests for favors.
Why is interpersonal influence so much more effective? Because it seems more genuine
and less conspicuous. Consider the following scenario:
The bait: Your friend calls up and says, “Hey, what are you doing Friday night?”
The nibble: Anticipating an invitation to go somewhere, you reply, “Nothing much,
why?”
You’re hooked and reeled in: “Well, I wonder if you could help me move into my new
apartment then?”
At least when you watch a television commercial you know the sponsor is after something
from the outset. In interpersonal encounters, others’ motives may be less transparent. Most
44
communication scholars agree that if you have a choice of mediums for persuasion, you
should choose the interpersonal arena. Our advice: Next time you want to turn in a paper
late, talk to your professor in person.
From our discussion thus far, it should be apparent that persuasion functions as a pervasive
force in virtually every facet of human communication. Kenneth Burke (1966), among others,
has written that humans are, by their very nature, symbol-using beings. One vital aspect of
human symbolicity involves the tendency to persuade others. We are symbol users, and one of
the principal functions of symbol usage is persuasion.
The recognition that social influence is an essential, pervasive feature of human symbolic
action provides the strongest possible justification for the study of persuasion. Persuasion is
one of the major underlying impulses for human communication. By way of analogy, one
can’t understand how an automobile works without taking a look under the hood. Similarly,
one can’t understand how human communication functions without examining one of its
primary motives—persuasion.
45
FIVE BENEFITS OF STUDYING PERSUASION
Given that persuasion is an inevitable fact of life, we offer five primary benefits of learning
about persuasion. We refer to these as the instrumental function, the knowledge and
awareness function, the defensive function, the debunking function, and the well-being
function. We examine each of these in turn.
The Instrumental Function: Be All That You Can Be
One good reason for learning about persuasion is so that you can become a more effective
persuader yourself. We refer to this as the instrumental function of persuasion, because
persuasion serves as an instrument, or a means to an end. We view the ability to persuade
others as an important aspect of communication competence. Communication competence
involves acting in ways that are perceived as effective and appropriate (Spitzberg & Cupach,
1984). Competent communicators possess the skills needed to achieve their objectives in
fitting ways for the particular situation.
A competent persuader needs to know how to analyze an audience in order to adapt the
message to the audience’s frame of reference. She or he needs to be able to identify which
strategies are appropriate and which will enjoy the greatest likelihood of success. A competent
persuader also must know how to organize and arrange a persuasive message for maximum
benefit. These are only some of the abilities required for successful persuasion.
But achieving the desired outcome is only one facet of communication competence. How
one goes about persuading also matters. A competent persuader needs to be viewed as
persuading in acceptable, appropriate ways. This means a persuader must be aware of social
and cultural norms governing the persuasive situation. For example, a parent who publicly
berates his or her child during a soccer match may be seen by other parents as engaging in
boorish behavior.
We are confident that by learning more about persuasion you will become a more effective
and appropriate persuader. Of course, not every influence attempt will succeed. By applying
the principles and processes presented in this text, and by adhering to the ethical guidelines
we offer, you should be able to improve your competence as a persuader.
The Knowledge and Awareness Function: Inquiring Minds Want to Know
Another good reason for learning about persuasion is because it will enhance your knowledge
46
and awareness of a variety of persuasive processes. Knowledge is power, as the saying goes.
There is value in learning more about how persuasion operates. You may not plan on going
into advertising for a living, but simply knowing how branding operates is worthwhile in and
of itself. You may not plan on joining a cult (who does?), but learning more about what
makes persons susceptible to cult conversion is worthwhile nonetheless. Simply from the
standpoint of an observer, learning about these topics can be fascinating.
An additional benefit of learning about how persuasion functions concerns overcoming
habitual persuasion. Many people rely on habitual forms of persuasion, regardless of whether
they are effective. They get comfortable with a few strategies and tactics that they use over
and over again. A good deal of our communication behavior is “mindless,” as opposed to
mindful, meaning we don’t pay much attention to how we communicate (Langer, 1978,
1989a, 1989b). Sometimes persuasion operates this way. Just as runners, swimmers, and other
athletes need to learn to adjust their breathing in response to different situations, persuaders
—to maximize their effectiveness—need to learn to adapt their methods to different
audiences and situations. Persuasion isn’t a “one-size-fits-all” form of communication.
47
FIGURE 1.4
A little persuasive acumen just might save you from yourself.
Source: © Lee Lorenz/The New Yorker Collection/www.cartoonbank.com
The Defensive Function: Duck and Cover
A third reason for learning about how persuasion operates is vital in our view: The study of
persuasion serves a defensive function. By studying how and why influence attempts succeed or
fail, you can become a more discerning consumer of persuasive messages, unlike the hapless
fellow depicted in Figure 1.4. If you know how persuasion works, you are less likely to be
taken in. It is worth noting that people tend to underestimate the influence of advertising on
themselves and overestimate its effects on others, a phenomenon known as the third-person
effect (Davidson, 1983; Jensen & Collins, 2008). Thus, you may be more defenseless than you
realize.
Throughout this text, we expose a number of persuasive tactics used in retail sales,
advertising, and marketing campaigns. For example, we have found in our classes that after
48
students are given a behind-the-scenes look at how car salespeople are taught to sell, several
students usually acknowledge, “Oh yeah, they did that to me.” Admittedly, a huckster could
also take advantage of the advice we offer in this book. We think it is far more likely,
however, that the typical student reader will use our advice and suggestions as weapons
against unethical influence attempts. Box 1.1, for example, offers advice on how to recognize
various propaganda ploys. In later chapters of this book, we warn you about common ploys
used by all manner of persuaders, from cult leaders to panhandlers to funeral home directors.
The Debunking Function: Puh-Shaw
A fourth reason for studying persuasion is that it serves a debunking function. The study of
human influence can aid in dispelling various “common-sense” assumptions and “homespun”
notions about persuasion. Traditional wisdom isn’t always right, and it’s worth knowing when
it’s wrong. Some individuals cling tenaciously to folk wisdom about persuasive practices that
are known by researchers to be patently false. For example, many people believe that
subliminal messages are highly effective and operate in a manner similar to that of posthypnotic suggestion. This belief is pure poppycock, as we point out in Chapter 15.
Of considerable importance, then, are empirical findings that are counterintuitive in nature
—that is, they go against the grain of common sense. By learning about research findings on
persuasion, the reader can learn to ferret out the true from the false, the fact from the fiction.
Well-Being and Self-Worth: I Feel Good
A fifth benefit of learning about persuasion is that the ability to persuade others improves
one’s subjective sense of well-being. There is a sense of satisfaction that comes from
persuading others. Researchers have found that influencing others satisfies five basic needs,
which are accuracy, belonging, self-worth, control, and meaning (Bourgeois, Sommer, &
Bruno, 2009; Sommer & Bourgeois, 2010). The first need, accuracy, refers to the desire to be
right about one’s beliefs and attitudes. One of the author’s spouses likes to joke, “I married
Mr. Right. Mr. always Right.” Winning someone over is one way of validating one’s own
views.
The need for belonging reflects the desire for social inclusion. People value social
connections. Persuading others is one means of establishing and maintaining relationships.
People also strive to maintain a positive self-concept or sense of self-worth. The ability to
persuade others enhances a person’s self-esteem. The need for control, or perceived control,
stems from a desire to shape our environment and exert influence over those with whom we
49
interact. Some people like to be in charge, take over, and have things their way. Others are
content to let someone else take the helm. Yet everyone seeks some degree of self-efficacy or
a sense that she or he is in control of their life. Lastly, people want to believe there is meaning
and purpose in their lives. One way of demonstrating one’s value or importance is by
influencing others.
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BOX 1.1 |
Persuasion Versus Propaganda and Indoctrination
What are propaganda and indoctrination and how do they differ from persuasion? To a
large extent, it is a matter of perspective. People tend to label their own messages as
persuasion and the other guy’s as propaganda. The same applies to indoctrination: We
tend to think that our government educates its citizens, but foreign governments,
especially those we dislike, indoctrinate their citizens. Understood in this way,
propaganda and indoctrination are largely pejorative terms used to describe persuasive
messages or positions with which people disagree. Gun control advocates claim the
NRA uses propaganda to thwart legislation that would place restrictions on gun sales.
Opponents of school prayer think that requiring students to recite a prayer in class
constitutes a form of religious indoctrination. When accused of propagandizing, the
common defense is to state that one was only engaged in an education or information
campaign. Thus, whether a given attempt at influence, such as the D.A.R.E. campaign,
is persuasion, propaganda, or indoctrination is largely in the eye of the beholder.
Definitions of propaganda are many and varied, but we happen to think Pratkanis
and Aronson’s (1991) definition does a good job of capturing the essence of the term:
Propaganda was originally defined as the dissemination of biased ideas and
opinions, often through the use of lies and deception. … The word propaganda
has since evolved to mean mass “suggestion” or influence through the
manipulation of symbols and the psychology of the individual. Propaganda is the
communication of a point of view with the ultimate goal of having the recipient
come to “voluntarily” accept the position as if it were his or her own.
(p. 9)
Different scholars have offered different views on the nature and characteristics of
propaganda (see Ellul, 1973; Jowett & O’Donnell, 1986; Smith, 1989). However, there
are some essential characteristics on which most scholars agree. These are as follows:
■
Propaganda has a strong ideological bent. Most scholars agree that propaganda
does not serve a purely informational function. Propaganda typically embodies a
strong bias, such as that of a “left-wing” or “right-wing” agenda. The campaign of
People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) to promote animal rights
51
would fall into this category. Propagandists aren’t trying to be neutral or objective.
They are working a specific agenda.
■
Propaganda is institutional in nature. Most scholars agree that propaganda is
practiced by organized groups, whether they happen to be government agencies,
political lobbies, private corporations, religious groups, or social movements. For
instance, the Anti-Defamation League is an organization founded to prevent
libeling and slandering of Jewish people. Although individuals might use
propaganda too (a parent might tell a child, “Santa only brings presents for good
girls and boys”), the term usually is associated with institutional efforts to persuade.
■
Propaganda involves mass persuasion. Most scholars agree that propaganda targets
a mass audience and relies on mass media to persuade. Propaganda is aimed at large
numbers of people and, as such, relies on mass communication (TV, radio, posters,
billboards, email, mass mailings, etc.) to reach its audience. Thus, gossip that was
shared by one office worker with another at the water cooler wouldn’t constitute
propaganda, but a corporate rumor that was circulated via email would.
■
Propaganda tends to rely on ethically suspect methods of influence. Propagandists
tend to put results first and ethics second. This characteristic is probably the one
that laypersons most closely associate with propaganda and the one that gives it its
negative connotation.
What are some of the questionable tactics used by propagandists? The Institute for
Propaganda Analysis, which was founded in 1937, identified seven basic propaganda
techniques, which still exist today (Miller, 1937). These include the plain folks appeal
(“I’m one of you”), testimonials (“I saw the aliens, sure as I’m standing here”), the
bandwagon effect (everybody’s doing it), card-stacking (presenting only one side of the
story), transfer (positive or negative associations, such as guilt by association), glittering
generalities (idealistic or loaded language, such as “freedom,” “empowering,” “family
values”), and name calling (“racist,” “tree hugger,” “femi-Nazi”).
We hope you’ll agree, based on the foregoing discussion, that there are quite a few good
reasons for studying persuasion. We hope we’ve persuaded you that the study of persuasion
can be a prosocial endeavor. That brings us back to an earlier point, however: Not all
persuaders are scrupulous. At this juncture, then, it seems appropriate that we address two
52
common criticisms related to the study of persuasion.
53
TWO CRITICISMS OF PERSUASION
Does Learning About Persuasion Foster Manipulation?
We’ve already touched on one of the common criticisms of studying persuasion: the notion
that it fosters a manipulative approach to communication. We address ethical concerns
surrounding the study and practice of persuasion more specifically in Chapter 16. For the
time being, however, a few general arguments can be offered in response to this concern.
First, our principal focus in this text is on the means of persuasion (e.g., how persuasion
functions). We view the means of persuasion not so much as moral or immoral, but rather as
amoral, or ethically neutral. In this respect, persuasion can be likened to a tool, such as a
hammer. Like any other tool, persuasion can be put to good or bad use. If this sounds like a
cop-out, read what Aristotle had to say on this same point in his Rhetoric:
If it is urged that an abuse of the rhetorical faculty can work great mischief, the same
charge can be brought against all good things (save virtue itself), and especially
against the most useful things such as strength, health, wealth, and military skill.
Rightly employed, they work the greatest blessings; and wrongly employed, they
work the greatest harm.
(1355b)
Related to this idea is the fact that tools can be used in good or bad ways, depending on
their user. We believe that first and foremost, a persuader’s motives determine whether a given
influence attempt is good or bad, right or wrong, ethical or unethical. We maintain that the
moral quality of a persuasive act is derived primarily from the ends a persuader seeks, and
only secondarily from the means the persuader employs. It isn’t so much what strategies and
tactics a persuader uses as why he or she uses them.
To illustrate, suppose you asked us whether the use of “fear appeals” is ethically justified.
We would have to say, it depends. If a fear appeal were being used to warn sexually active
teens of the risks of HIV infection from unprotected sex, we would tend to say the appeal was
justified. If a fear appeal were being used by a terrorist who threatened to kill a hostage every
hour until his demands were met, we would say the appeal was unjustified. In each case, the
motives of the persuader would “color” the use of the fear appeal. Consistent with our tool
analogy, fear appeals, like other persuasive strategies, can be used for good or bad ends.
54
A second response to this criticism was highlighted earlier. The study of persuasion
performs a defensive function insofar as it educates people to become more discriminating
consumers of persuasive messages. For instance, we believe our “Tips on Buying a New or
Used Car” (see Box 1.2) are useful to any potential car buyer who wants to avoid being
manipulated at a car lot. By increasing your awareness of the ploys of would-be persuaders,
this text performs a watchdog function. You can use the information contained herein to arm
yourself against the tactics of unscrupulous persuaders.
A third response that bears mentioning is that in denouncing the study of persuasion,
antimanipulation types are also attempting to persuade. The message that persuasion is
manipulative or exploitative is itself a persuasive appeal that advocates a position regarding
the “proper” study of communication. When one group claims to know best how human
communication should be studied, they are, in fact, standing on the persuasion soapbox
themselves.
Are Persuasion Findings Too Inconsistent or Confusing?
An additional complaint is that the study of persuasion has led to findings that are overly
qualified, or contradictory in nature. Empirical investigations of persuasion, it is argued, have
not yielded clear and consistent generalizations. There is no “E = mc2,” no “second law of
thermodynamics,” no universal when it comes to persuasion.
First, the complaint that persuasion isn’t worth studying because the findings are often
inconclusive or contradictory makes little sense. Quite the opposite: We believe that
persuasion warrants study precisely because it is so elusive. Underlying this criticism is the
expectation that reality is, or should be, simple and uncomplicated. Like it or not,
understanding reality is hard work. As we’ve already noted, human beings are complex
creatures who rarely respond to messages for one and only one reason. Actually, we find this
to be a redeeming feature of humanity. We rejoice in the fact that we aren’t an altogether
gullible, predictable, or controllable species.
A second response to this criticism is simply that persuasion research has revealed a
number of significant, relevant generalizations. You’ll find many such generalizations
throughout this book. Newer techniques of statistical analysis, such as meta-analysis,6 have
made it possible to reconcile some of the previous inconsistencies in the literature. In this
text, we identify a number of noteworthy, albeit qualified, generalizations that are based on
the most recent meta-analyses available.
55
56
BOX 1.2 |
Tips on Buying a New or Used Car
Given the current state of the economy and the economic fix in which car dealers find
themselves, buying a car nowadays is easier than before. Car dealers are eager to sell cars.
Nevertheless, car salespersons, especially used car salespersons, have a bad reputation.
We’ve met some honest, upstanding sellers. We’ve also met some shady operators.
Because a car is a major purchase, one would be well advised to err on the side of caution
when negotiating with a car salesperson. Caveat emptor, as the saying goes: Let the
buyer beware.
1. Be wary. Remember, buying a car is a ritual in which the car dealer has the upper
hand. This is the prototype for high-pressure sales. They are professionals. They
sell cars every day. You are an amateur. Who do you think has more experience
with persuasion in this setting?
2. Do your homework before you go visit a car dealer. Read up on the makes and
models in which you’re interested. Find out about performance criteria, standard
features, and options before setting foot on a car lot. Consumer Reports compares
used cars on reliability, safety, and other criteria based on data from actual owners.
Research shows that doing your homework can save you money (Seiter & Seiter,
2005).
3. Keep a poker face. If the salesperson knows you are eager or excited about the car
purchase, he or she will smell blood. Once the salesperson knows you are
emotionally attached to a particular car, you’ll wind up paying more.
4. Take a calculator with you. Car salespersons like to pretend that the prices of things
are entirely up to the calculator (“Hey, let’s see how the numbers shake out”). The
implication is that the numbers aren’t negotiable or flexible. Everything is
negotiable. Do your own figuring to see if the numbers “shake out” the same way.
If not, ask why.
5. Once you are on the car lot, dealers will try to keep you there. They may put you in
a cubicle, holding you “hostage” during the negotiations. Their psychological
strategy is to wear you down. After hours of haggling, you’ll become mentally
drained and more likely to give in. They may ask for the keys to your trade-in,
presumably to look it over and determine its value. Once they have your keys, you
57
can’t leave.
6. The car salesperson will want to avoid talking about the total price of the car,
opting instead to discuss the monthly payment you can afford. You, however,
should focus on four things: (a) the total purchase price, (b) the finance period, (c)
the interest rate, and (d) the monthly payment. Don’t discuss the monthly payment
unless you are clear on the finance period involved (a 3-year loan, 4-year loan, 5year loan, etc.). If you admit you can afford $300 per month, the salesperson may
simply switch to a longer finance period—say, 4 years, instead of 3, thereby adding
thousands of dollars to the total purchase price.
7. During the negotiations, the salesperson may leave the room a number of times to
talk with the “sales manager.” This is all choreographed. The salesperson can’t
agree to anything without checking with this mysterious figure, so the person with
whom you are negotiating really can’t commit to anything. You, however, will be
asked to commit to a lot of things. Don’t.
8. The salesperson will act like he or she is your best friend, even though you just met.
The salesperson will look for ways to identify with you or ingratiate himself or
herself to you to establish camaraderie (“You like fly fishing? That makes two of
us.” “Whaddya-know, my granddaughter is named ‘Fifi’ too!”). During the
negotiations, the salesperson will pretend he or she is on your side and is willing to
go out on a limb for you (“Well, my sales manager may kick my butt for even
taking him this offer, but hey, I like you”). Remember, these two are working as a
team, against you. Don’t be confused for a moment about where the salesperson’s
loyalties reside.
9. The car salesperson will do all kinds of things to get you to make a commitment to
buy (“What would it take to get you to buy this car? Just tell me, whudda-I-goddado to get you in this car?”). Often, the salesperson will ask you to write down any
amount you’re offering on a slip of paper or an offer sheet, even though it isn’t
legally binding (it does increase your psychological commitment, however). The car
dealer wants you to sit in the car, take it for a test spin, smell the upholstery,
because then you will become psychologically committed to owning the car.
10. If you get close to a deal, or alternatively, if a deal seems to be coming apart, don’t
be surprised if another salesperson comes in to take over the negotiations. Often a
“closer” is sent in (sort of like a relief pitcher in baseball) to complete the sale.
11. Beware of “loss leaders” (advertised specials at absurdly low prices). These are
58
come-ons designed to get you onto the lot. Once there, however, you’ll be subjected
to the “old switcheroo.” You’ll find there is/was only one car at that price. You will
probably be told, “Sorry, it’s already sold … but I can make you a honey of a deal on
…”
12. The sale isn’t over simply because you’ve agreed on a price. You still have to deal
with the dreaded “finance person.” You’ll be given the impression that you’re simply
seeing the finance person to sign documents and process paperwork. Don’t let
down your guard. The finance person will try to add on thousands of dollars in the
form of extended warranties, antitheft systems, and protective coatings.
13. The interest rate is just as important as the price of the car. Shop around for a car
loan from a bank or credit union before you shop for a car. The rates may be lower
and you can find out exactly how much you qualify for in advance.
14. Shop around for prices on options such as stereos before you go to a car dealer.
People often bargain well on the purchase price, then give up everything they’ve
gained by failing to bargain on the price of extras. The price of everything is
negotiable.
15. Don’t let the salesperson know in advance that you have a trade-in. Any bargaining
gains you make on the purchase price of the new car will just be deducted from the
trade-in value of your used car. Sell the used car on your own, if at all possible. If
that’s not possible, you can always mention your trade-in after you’ve negotiated the
price of the new car.
16. Don’t get a lemon. Buying a used car can be particularly risky. One of the authors
bought a used sports car on eBay. How did he know from a mere picture and
description whether the car was in good shape? He ran a CARFAX history on the
car, easily available online (see www.carfax.com), which revealed that the car had
had only one previous owner; had never been stolen, totaled, or repossessed; had
correct odometer readings; and had passed a smog check each year when the vehicle
registration was renewed. Since the car was coming from another state, the author
went one step further and hired an independent mechanic to perform a
“prepurchase inspection” on the car, at a cost of about $150. We strongly suggest
you do the same for any used car. After all, how much can the average consumer
tell about a car from looking under the hood and kicking the tires?
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You’ll notice in this book that we’ve drawn on the people in the trenches themselves to
learn how persuasion works in particular contexts and settings. We’ve talked to used car
salespersons, funeral home operators, retail clothing clerks, advertising firms, former cult
members, door-to-door salespersons, and telemarketers to find out—from the horse’s mouth,
so to speak—how persuasion operates.
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ETHICAL CONCERNS ABOUT THE USE OF PERSUASION
We would be remiss if we concluded this chapter without emphasizing the importance of
ethics in the persuasion process. We wish to underscore the point that the use of persuasion is
fraught with ethical concerns. We raise a number of such concerns in Box 1.3 for you to
ponder. Our position is that in learning how to become a more effective persuader, you
should strive to be an ethical persuader as well. In the final chapter, we address a number of
ethical questions related to various strategies and techniques of persuasion discussed
throughout the text. We wait until the final chapter to fully examine ethical concerns for two
reasons: First, until you’ve learned more about persuasion, you may not fully appreciate all of
the ethical issues that are involved. Second, after you’ve studied the full scope of persuasion as
we present it in this text, you’ll be in a much better position to place these ethical questions in
perspective.
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BOX 1.3 |
Ethical or Unethical Persuasion? You Decide
Instructions: For each of the following scenarios, indicate how ethical or unethical you
perceive the persuader or the persuasive strategy to be, based on a five-point scale (with
1 being “highly ethical” and 5 being “highly unethical”).
1. A student pretends to cry in a professor’s office in an attempt to coax the professor
into giving her a makeup exam. Is this ethical persuasion?
2. A persuader advances an argument he doesn’t believe in, but that he thinks will be
convincing to his listeners. The argument isn’t untrue or invalid; it just happens to
be one with that the persuader himself does not agree. Is this ethical persuasion?
3. A car salesperson emphasizes that the model of car a customer is considering has
“more horsepower and better mileage than the competition.” The salesperson fails
to mention that the car has worse reliability and a worse safety record than the
competition. Is this ethical persuasion?
4. A skilled attorney successfully defends a client she knows to be guilty. Is this ethical
persuasion?
5. A minister tells his congregation that a vote for a particular candidate is “a vote for
the Devil incarnate” and that the scriptures demand that the faithful cast their
ballots for another candidate. Is this ethical persuasion?
6. A persuader sincerely believes in the arguments she is presenting, but the facts and
information she cites are incorrect and outdated. Is this ethical persuasion?
7. Parents use a fear appeal to convince their child to clean her room. “Santa doesn’t
bring presents to children with dirty rooms,” they warn. Is this ethical persuasion?
8. A children’s cereal states on the box, “High in the vitamins kids need” but doesn’t
mention that the cereal is high in sugar, too. Is this ethical persuasion?
9. A newlywed husband is upset that his wife wants to go to a dance club with some
of her single friends for drinks. “If you go,” he warns, “I’m going to a strip club with
some of my friends.” Is this ethical persuasion?
10. A political campaign runs a series of negative attack ads against an opponent, not
because the campaign manager prefers to but because voter surveys show that
negative ads will work, whereas ads that take the political “high road” won’t. Is this
ethical persuasion?
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63
SUMMARY
We hope that we’ve convinced you of the ubiquity of persuasion in human interaction. The
capacity to persuade is one of the defining features of humankind. This fact provides the
strongest possible reason for studying persuasion. Given that learning about persuasion serves
an instrumental function, a knowledge and awareness function, a defensive function, a
debunking function, and a well-being and self-worth function, we believe there is ample
justification for studying this topic. Finally, rejoinders to two current criticisms of the study of
persuasion were offered. Hopefully, a persuasive case has been made for learning about
persuasion.
One other thing: Did we mention that learning about persuasion can also be fun?
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NOTES
1.
The scientific study of persuasion dates back to the 1940s and 1950s, when Carl Hovland founded the Yale Attitude
Research Program as part of the war effort. The government wanted to know how to counter enemy propaganda that
could affect the morale of troops and how susceptible POWs were to brainwashing.
2.
Aristotle’s work Rhetoric is one such text that has survived the test of time. Written in the fourth century BCE,
Aristotle’s work has had a lasting influence on our understanding of persuasion. Many of his insights and observations
are considered valid even today.
3.
Note that with the exception of Hitler, these charismatic leaders enjoyed a limited following. The rest of us weren’t
taken in by their claims, suggesting that people, in general, aren’t that gullible after all.
4.
A New York Times article (Story, 2007) sets daily ad exposure at up to 5,000 ads per day. Rosseli, Skelly, and Mackie
(1995) state, “even by conservative estimates, the average person is exposed to 300–400 persuasive messages a day from
the mass media alone” (p. 163). Jones (2004) pegs the number of advertising messages at 300 to 1,500 every day, but
indicates that some estimates are as high as 3,000 per day—a number Jones labels fanciful (p. 12). Without saying who
says so, Berger (2011) reports that “some estimate that we are exposed to 15,000 commercial messages each day” (p.
101).
We are suspicious of such estimates, however, because they may simply represent “unknowable” statistics. At the
very least, estimates of the number of persuasive messages to which the average person is exposed involve
extrapolations, and the criteria upon which the extrapolations are based aren’t always provided. What’s more, the
estimates often contradict one another. By way of illustration, Berger (2011) maintains that “advertisers spend around
$800 per person in the United States on advertising” (p. 101), whereas Dupont (1999) claims, “In the U.S., close to
$400 for every man, woman, and child are invested in advertising each year” (p. 8). Which, if either, estimate is
correct?
5.
We don’t have sufficient space to devote to this topic here, but suffice it to say that the traditional notion of scientific
realism is under siege from the antirealism camp (see Kourany, 1998). The antirealists argue that science is neither
purely objective nor impartial but heavily value laden (see also Laudan, 1984; Longino, 1990).
6.
Meta-analysis refers to a statistical technique that allows a researcher to combine the results of many separate
investigations and examine them as if they were one big super study. A meta-analysis is capable of revealing trends
across a number of studies and resolving apparent inconsistencies among studies.
65
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