Communications Question
Find an opinion article (Op-Ed, letter to the editor, editorial, etc.) that supports your personal position on your public argument topic. In order for the opinion article to qualify for this assignment, it must be an extended argument with at least five paragraphs and a thesis statement. (POVERTY)
Apply what you have learned in Unit 1 & Unit 2 (unites attached to help) 1
Opinion Editorial Analysis
For this discussion post, the main article that will be used for analysis is Animal
Magnetism — and Optimism, four new books that look to fauna to get us through tough
times by Cornelia Channing (2023). This post is based on the various positions that different
writers have about the whole initiative of ensuring that the society and nation at large engage
in environmental conservation efforts. This is necessitated by the need to ensure that all
animals within the environment are well taken care of in an effort to ensure their survival
despite the ever-changing climatic conditions as well as the climate.
I agree with the writer’s notion that we have to ensure that we take care of the
environment and ensure that all animals are provided with an opportunity to survive and
develop within their natural environments. All animals play an essential role in promoting a
balance in the ecological system. If we all develop effective mechanisms, then the whole
coexisting agenda will be effectively adopted. To reinforce these beliefs that the environment
must be cherished and all measures undertaken to promote the survival of the animals,
Margret Renkl published a book, The Comfort of Crows: A Background Year. This book
contains her meditations and observations of how the animal population continues to dwindle
over the pandemic year.
In her book, she states that every day, she looks through her yard to have a view of the
natural environment. She worries that that may be the last time she ever sees some animals.
This moment of reflection is an indication of her commitment to ensuring that the natural
world is effectively protected and, therefore, fostering environmental conservation efforts.
She writes with much affection about how she is getting older and also the dynamics of
American politics. She views the American political landscape to be shifting from embracing
environmental conservation efforts to promoting profitmaking organizations that pay less
2
attention to environmental issues. She narrates of how she has interacted with animals such as
frogs, voles, bobcats, foxes, spiders, bees, skinks, and chickadees. Statements such as ‘You
would not believe how soft a toad is to touch’ and how frogs make good music are all
indications of her commitment to ensuring that environmental conservation measures are
implemented to promote ecological balance.
Other reviewed books include Carl Safina’s ALFIE AND ME: What Owls Know,
What Humans Believe (Norton, 384 pp., $32.50) and Joe Roman’s EAT, POOP, DIE: How
Animals Make Our World (Little, Brown Spark., 278 pp., $29.94) are all based on
observations made during the pandemic times. All these books have a common point, which
is an increased emphasis on environmental conservation measures. It is, therefore, essential
that the global human population take effective measures that will ensure that all animal
interests are effectively addressed as we seek an ecological balance and implement proper
conservation habits.
3
Reference
Channing C., (2023). Animal Magnetism — and Optimism. Four new books look to fauna to
get us through tough times. https://www.nytimes.com/2023/12/23/books/review/thecomfort-of-crows-margaret-renkl-alfie-and-me-carl-safina-of-time-and-turtles-symontgomery-eat-poop-die-joe-roman.html?register=google&auth=register-google
Opinion Editorial Analysis
Purpose
The purpose of this assignment is to map and analyze an argument from an opinion piece
of the position or perspective that you personally support on your public argument topic.
Task
Find an opinion article (Op-Ed, letter to the editor, editorial, etc.) that supports your
personal position on your public argument topic. In order for the opinion article to qualify
for this assignment, it must be an extended argument with at least five paragraphs and a
thesis statement.
Apply what you have learned in Unit 1 & Unit 2 to identify and analyze the pieces of the
argument in the opinion article.
Part 1
1. Copy and paste the text of the opinion
article into a Word or Google
document.
2. Provide a URL link to the original
opinion article.
3. Your analysis should include at least 12
comments.
4. Using the comment function, highlight
the text of the opinion article that you
are analyzing. The comment
should identify the piece of the
argument that phrase or sentence
represents, and analyze the
effectiveness of that argument piece.
Each comment should be at least two
sentences.
Here are argument pieces that you may comment about.
•
Identify: the thesis
statement and supporting claims made
in the opinion piece.
Analyze: Is the specific claim
are they clear and easily
understandable? Are there
any claims missing or any
adjustments that would
improve the claim?
Identify: the evidence that was used in
the argument.
o Analyze: Does the evidence
support the claim? Is the
evidence strong or weak? Is
there enough evidence?
Could they have used a
different type of evidence? Is
the evidence credible or
verifiable?
Identify: the reasoning.
o Analyze: Are there any
errors in reasoning or
fallacies? Did the subarguments provide support
for the thesis statement? Are
there any pieces of
reasoning missing?
Identify: any rebuttals within the
argument.
o Analyze: Did the writer
respond to a strong counterargument? If so, was it
effective? If not, how could
they have responded to a
counter-argument?
Identify sourcing or citations.
o Analyze: Did the writer
properly attribute their
information? Are you able to
follow the trail of
information? Did they have
any hyperlinks, citations or
attributions missing? Are the
sources credible?
Identify the author &/or publisher.
o Analyze: Are they credible &
authoritative? Can they be
trusted? Can you easily find
o
•
•
•
•
•
•
information about their
reputation?
Identify: anything missing?
o Analyze: Go beyond
analyzing what is present in
the argument to include
what was missing. For
example, maybe the title of
the article was missing
making it difficult to
understand what the
argument was about.
Part 2
Apply what you have learned in Unit 1 & Unit 2 to evaluate the opinion piece. Write a 1/2page to 1-page argument that evaluates the opinion piece you analyzed.
1. The evaluation should have at least
two paragraphs and a thesis
statement that indicates whether you
think the argument is strong/sound or
weak/not sound.
o For example: “This is a
strong argument because…”,
“This is a weak argument
because it has
inconsistencies in
reasoning…”
o Make sure you have several
introductory sentences
before stating your thesis
statement.
2. Use the comments that you highlighted
in part 1 to support your thesis
statement.
3. Written at a collegiate writing level.
Your essay should be free of grammar,
syntax, and spelling errors and I
recommend that you revise and/or
complete a peer review.
Criteria
See the rubric below for criteria details.
This assignment may be submitted late with a 5% reduction per day late up to a week past
the due date.
Submission Materials
Part 1 and Part 2 may be submitted together in one document in the following file
formats: .doc, .docx. Google documents will not be accepted. Pdf files do not save
comments so DO NOT convert the document to a pdf.
Resources
•
•
•
COM 104 Library Guide from UNLV
Lied Library
Researching, Library, & Citing
Resources
Tutorial for using track changes &
comments in Word
How to add Comments in a Google document
How to export a Google document into a Word document
Rachel’s Opinion Editorial Analysis
Actions
Rubric
Opinion Editorial Analysis
Opinion Editorial Analysis
Criteria
This
criterion is
linked to a
Learning
OutcomePart
1 – Opinion
Editorial
This
criterion is
linked to a
Learning
OutcomePart
1 – Amount
of
Comments
Ratings
5 pts
Excellent
The original
opinion piece is
submitted and
contains a
thesis
statement and
at least two
supporting
paragraphs.
10 pts
Excellent
12 comments
or
annotations
are included
on the
opinion
piece.
4 pts
Average
The original
opinion piece is
submitted and
contains a
thesis statement
and less than
two supporting
paragraphs.
8 pts
Average
Less than 12
comments or
annotations
are included
on the
opinion
piece.
Pts
3 pts
Poor
The
original
article is
submitted
but is not
an opinion
piece.
6 pts
Poor
Less than 6
comments or
annotations
are included
on the
opinion
piece.
0 pts
Missing
The
original
text is not
submitted.
0 pts
Missing
No
comments or
annotations
are included
on the
opinion
piece.
5 pts
10 pts
Opinion Editorial Analysis
Criteria
This
criterion is
linked to a
Learning
OutcomePart
1 – Analysis
Comments
This
criterion is
linked to a
Learning
OutcomePart
2 – Length of
Written
Evaluation
Ratings
10 pts
Excellent
Comments
or
annotations
are
MOSTLY
correct in
identifying
and
analyzing
argument
pieces.
8 pts
Average
Comments or
annotations are
SOMEWHAT
correct in
identifying and
analyzing
argument
pieces.
5 pts
Excellent
Written
evaluation
of argument
meets the
required
length.
4 pts
Average
Written
evaluation of
argument is
MINORLY
over or under
the length
requirement.
Pts
6 pts
Poor
Comments
or
annotations
are NOT
correct in
identifying
and
analyzing
argument
pieces.
0 pts
Missing
Comments
or
annotations
are missing.
2.5 pts
Poor
Written
evaluation of
argument is
MAJORLY
over or under
the length
requirement.
0 pts
Missing
A written
evaluation
of the
argument is
missing.
10 pts
5 pts
Opinion Editorial Analysis
Criteria
This
criterion is
linked to a
Learning
OutcomePart
2Evaluation
of Argument
This
criterion is
linked to a
Learning
OutcomePart
2Collegiate
Writing
Total Points: 50
PreviousNext
Ratings
Pts
15 pts
Excellent
Written
evaluation of
the argument
has a thesis
statement and
uses some
comments or
annotations to
support the
thesis
statement.
10 pts
Average
Written
evaluation of
the argument
has a thesis
statement and
does not use
comments or
annotations to
support the
thesis
statement.
5 pts
Poor
Written
evaluation of
the argument
does not have
a thesis
statement and
does not use
comments or
annotations to
support the
thesis
statement.
0 pts
No Marks
A written
evaluation
of the
argument
is missing.
5 pts
Excellent
Collegiate
writing is
practiced
with little to
no writing
errors.
4 pts
Average
Collegiate
writing is
SOMEWHAT
practiced and
contains writing
errors.
2 pts
Poor
Collegiate
writing is
NOT
practiced
and contains
consistent
writing
errors.
0 pts
Missing
A written
evaluation
of the
argument is
missing.
15 pts
5 pts
Critical Thinking in Academic Research
CINDY GRUWELL AND ROBIN EWING
MINNESOTA STATE COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES
Critical Thinking in Academic Research by Cindy Gruwell and Robin Ewing is licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.
Please note: Each chapter contains a specific attribution statement
Contents
Introduction
1
Part I. What is Critical Thinking?
What is Critical Thinking?
3
Thinking Fast and Slow
5
How Confident Are You in Your Reasoning Skills?
6
Thinking in an Informed Way
7
A Word About Values
8
What About Assumptions?
9
Chapter Attribution
11
Part II. Barriers to Critical Thinking
Barriers to Critical Thinking
13
Social Conditioning
14
Labeling
16
Stereotypes
17
Fallacies
18
Chapter Attribution
23
Part III. Analyzing Arguments
Is It an Argument?
25
Standard Argument Form
28
Kinds of Arguments
31
Explanations and Reported Arguments
34
Chapter Attribution
36
Part IV. Making an Argument
Making an Argument
38
Components of an Argument
41
Order of the Components
46
Where You Get the Components
50
Helping Others Follow
55
Chapter Attribution
58
Part V. Research Questions
The Purpose of Research Questions
60
Background Reading
62
Narrowing a Topic
65
Regular vs. Research Questions
77
Influence of a Research Question
80
Developing Your Research Question
85
Chapter Attribution
88
Part VI. Sources and Information Needs
Sources and Information Needs
90
Sources to Meet Needs
93
Thinking About the Roles of Sources
99
Synthesis of Your Own Ideas
102
BEAM: A Solution that Might Shine
105
Using BEAM
107
Practice with BEAM
111
BEAM Reference Chart
115
Planning Your Sources
118
Chapter Attribution
122
Part VII. Types of Sources
Categorizing Sources
124
Quantitative or Qualitative Information
127
Fact or Opinion
132
Primary, Secondary & Tertiary Sources
137
Popular, Professional, & Scholarly
144
Publication Formats and the Information Lifecycle
147
Scholarly Articles as Sources
151
News as a Source
154
Data as Sources
158
People as Sources
164
Chapter Attribution
168
Part VIII. Precision Searching
Why Precision Searching?
170
Main Concepts
173
Related and Alternative Terms
176
Search Statements
178
Library Catalog
183
WorldCat
186
Google Scholar
189
Library Databases
192
Web Search Engines
197
Tips for Common Search Tools
199
Chapter Attribution
202
Part IX. Evaluating Sources
Thinking Critically About Sources
204
SIFT
208
Stop
209
Investigate the Source
212
Find and Confirm
215
Track down the Original Content
216
Evaluating Data as Sources
218
Chapter Attribution
220
Part X. Ethical Use and Citing Sources
Ethical Use and Citing Sources
222
Why Cite Sources?
227
When to Quote, Paraphrase, or Summarize
230
Challenges in Citing Sources
233
Citation and Citation Styles
236
Steps for Citing
241
Citation Management
247
When to Cite
249
Chapter Attribution
253
Part XI. Copyright Basics
What Is Copyright?
255
What Copyright Covers
258
Copyright Rights & Exceptions
262
Respecting Copyright
267
Creative Commons
270
Public Domain and Term of Copyright
273
What Is Fair Use?
277
Chapter Attribution
280
Works Cited
281
Additional Book Formats
283
About the Authors
284
Introduction
One of the primary goals of attending college is to become a critical thinker. As students evolve
into lifelong learning they will have to navigate an incredible amount of information related to
their studies and personal lives. The ability to explore their world will be dependent on their
research and information literacy skills. In fact, when employers were asked about the information
skills desired in new employees, they “placed a high premium on graduates’ abilities for searching
online, finding information with tools other than search engines, and identifying the best solution
from all the information they had gathered” (Head, 2012).
Critical Thinking in Academic Research will introduce students to the techniques and principles
of critical thinking. However, a commitment to lifelong learning is required for critical thinking,
it takes more that a single course or reading a book. In order for students to develop their own
arguments, they need to find supporting evidence. This text provides guidance on developing
research questions and finding resources to answer the questions.
Introduction | 1
PART I
WHAT IS CRITICAL THINKING?
2 | What is Critical Thinking?
What is Critical Thinking?
Critical thinking is one of those things that most people are in favor of – especially in colleges
and universities. But people in different fields and traditions have varying definitions, and it is not
obvious that all are in favor of the same thing. How should we decide on a definition?
The American Association of Colleges and Universities came up with a definition of critical
thinking that we will use as a starting place.
“Critical Thinking is a habit of mind characterized by the comprehensive exploration of issues,
ideas and artifacts before accepting or formulating an opinion or conclusion” (AAC&U, 2017).
Here are a few things to notice about this definition as we begin exploring this topic:
• Critical thinking is characterized as a habit of mind. One college class is not enough to
develop a habit, so one college class is not going to create “critical thinkers.” Instead, this
class will introduce you to some component skills of the habit. Your routine and daily
decisions will determine whether you develop (or deepen) the habit — or leave what you
learn as you go on about your life.
• We assume that the people reading this book will vary with respect to critical thinking
habits. Some people will come in already practiced and quite skilled. For them, our
discussion about critical thinking will offer ways to think about and double-check their
current habits. Others will enter the read believing they are already critical thinkers —
already skilled in the habits of thoughtfulness — but will be exposed to vocabulary and ideas
that challenge that pre-existing belief.
• The basic value judgment involved in critical thinking, as this field has grown out of the
European philosophical tradition, is this: when issues are important, reflective opinions are
more valuable than opinions of the moment. It follows from this that when an issue is
important, it is worthwhile to have the skills available to think deeply and well. Those are the
skills we will be focusing on in this book.
• The definition of critical thinking doesn’t state it, but there is a value judgment implicit in the
attention within colleges and universities to critical thinking. The assumption is that it is
good to be reasonable and bad to be unreasonable. As a critical thinker, one issue you will be
asked to confront over and over in this class: IS CRITICAL THINKING SO IMPORTANT AS TO
WARRANT ALL THIS ATTENTION AND ENTHUSIASM? As you get increasingly clear about
what critical thinking looks like (in academia), you will be able to think more clearly about the
What is Critical Thinking? | 3
value assumption. Is it worth all the work?
4 | What is Critical Thinking?
Thinking Fast and Slow
One way of thinking about thinking focuses attention to the fact that
humans have two different ways of arriving at beliefs or opinions. Similar
to the contrast between opinions of the moment and reflective or
deliberative opinions, one method is FAST and easy but less reliable and
the other is SLOW and takes lots of hard work but is more reliable. In the
discipline of critical thinking, reasoning is judged better if it is more
reliable.
The goal of slow thinking or critical thinking is to determine which claims
are true. So accuracy is the standard by which slow thinking is
considered better thinking. But from an evolutionary perspective, there
are times when “jumping to a conclusion” is better than taking the time
to reflect and deliberate, even if it is less reliable. If a dangerous predator is coming your way,
moving to safety FAST will keep you alive. It may be that you will jump and run for cover in
situations where there is no real danger. But better to be wrong and alive, according to the people
doing evolutionary psychology.
Slow thinking is often referred to as “deliberative,” and the verb form is to deliberate.
We all come up against all sorts of occasions in our lives requiring fast action, with no time to
deliberate. But the skills you will practice all take time. They are for when you can think ahead or
you have lived through a fast decision and want to think critically about the decision you made,
keeping open that you might well have done something else if you had the luxury of time to reflect.
A process like this has been developed and routinely used by the U.S. military. The idea is not
to point fingers at people who had to choose fast, and whose decisions in hindsight can be seen
clearly to not have been the best. Instead, the point of an after-action review is to take time, after
the fact of action, to think over the available options and the pros and cons of each choice with the
intention to deepen our learning in preparation for future contexts requiring fast choice. Much of
what we will be doing in the class is like an after-action review.
Thinking Fast and Slow | 5
How Confident Are You in Your Reasoning
Skills?
Many people tend to overestimate their critical thinking skills. Here is just one example of
documentation of this trend, from a business website, MindEdge, focused on helping students
develop skills many employers say they want in college graduates:
“The second annual State of Critical Thinking survey from MindEdge asked respondents to
complete a brief quiz requiring them to use digital literacy and critical thinking skills. “[…] In 2017,
44 percent of survey respondents received an ‘F’ on the critical thinking quiz. In 2018, 52 percent
of respondents failed the quiz” (Ascione, 2020).
Many students taking a critical thinking course report a curve in their sense of confidence
as thinkers. Like people in the MindEdge survey, they start out thinking they are pretty good
thinkers. Then somewhere in the first third of the class, that sense of confidence takes a hit.
The complexities of slow thinking can be hard to grasp at first. The homework and quizzes can
feel confusing or tough. But as the term progresses, the techniques become more routine and
less bewildering. Though slow thinking ALWAYS requires us to use a limited supply of our mental
energy. This short excerpt from Kahneman’s work is a nice introduction.
Before you move further along there are some tenets to keep in mind. These will be covered in the
next section.
6 | How Confident Are You in Your Reasoning Skills?
Thinking in an Informed Way
Informed reasoning is based on claims that can be substantiated. In other
words, your opinion should be based on fact and not on personal opinion.
In today’s world where we’ve become ever more involved in using
technology as a resource for information, it is crucial that we have the
ability to think in an informed way in order to be able to decipher the
barrage of information available to us.
The ability to form and articulate opinions is extremely important in all facets of life. As citizens,
people need to form opinions about political issues and leaders in order to vote responsibly. We
must form opinions about social issues, and we form opinions about the people we work and
interact with on a daily basis. However, simply having an opinion about a given topic is not enough.
In this age of information, if we want to effectively share our opinions with others, we must be
educated about the topics we are discussing.
Whether writing a letter to the editor about a local issue or trying to convince your boss that
you’ve developed a great business strategy or convincing your parents that you should have a
specific privilege, presenting an informed, educated opinion is much more effective than sharing
one based on emotion or personal experience alone.
In addition to being informed, you must consider both your values and assumptions. All color your
thinking and require you to reflect and practice slow thinking as you develop your own opinions.
Thinking in an Informed Way | 7
A Word About Values
Three types of values
Values are standards or ideals with which we evaluate actions, people,
things, or situations. Beauty, honesty, justice, peace, generosity are all
examples of values that many people endorse. In thinking about values it
is useful to distinguish them into three types:
• Personal values: values endorsed by an individual. For example, some
people regard family as their most important value and structure their lives so that they can
spend more time with their family. Other people might value success instead, and give less
time to their families in order to achieve their goals.
• Moral values: values that help determine what is morally right or wrong, e.g. freedom,
fairness, equality, well-being, etc… Those which are used to evaluate social institutions are
sometimes also known as political values.
• Aesthetic values: values associated with the evaluation of artwork or beauty.
The Role of Facts and Values
The following are descriptive statements. they purport to describe facts :
• This is a sharp knife.
• Mozart and Beethoven are composers.
• Ann believes that freedom of speech is important.
These, however, are statements about values :
• This knife is a very useful kitchen tool
• Mozart is a greater composer than Beethoven
• Freedom of speech should be protected
Philosophers usually distinguish between two kinds of values: intrinsic and extrinsic. Something is
supposed to have extrinsic value when it is not valued for its own sake, but because it contributes
to some further purpose, or because it helps bring about something else of value. So a particular
kitchen knife might be said to be very valuable in this extrinsic sense – it is valued not for its own
sake but because it can be used to satisfy certain culinary purposes that we treasure.
8 | A Word About Values
What About Assumptions?
Like any human activity, the practice of critical thinking requires several assumptions to make
sense. For people who don’t share the assumptions, the whole process can be experienced as
confusing or nonsensical. Here is a partial list of assumptions that
sometimes cause trouble for people new to critical thinking.
1. Critical thinking (CT) is evaluative. An evaluation is a statement
that compares what is the case to a standard about how things
should be. CT requires people to make lots of judgments about
good and bad, right and wrong, what we should or shouldn’t do.
The standard of evaluation used in critical thinking for
reasoning is reliability. Good reasoning is reliable, and bad
reasoning is unreliable.
2. In CT, reasoning implies evaluation, both individual (“You should
recycle your aluminum!”) and collective (“We should abolish the
death penalty!”). Each statement can be supported by reasons,
and the reasons can be evaluated as better or worse.
3. In CT, truth is treated as absolute — not partial, changing, or relative to different points of
view.
4. The ultimate “should” in critical thinking is this: you should not contradict yourself. There
are other “should” statements, but they are all based on this idea that self-contradiction is
bad. Contradictory statements, by definition, cannot all be true, and based on #3 above that
means they can’t be partly true, or true to some people but not others. A statement that is
self-contradictory is absolutely, eternally, necessarily and inevitably not true.
If you don’t agree with one or more of the above assumptions, expect some trouble even
understanding what is going on when trying to use critical thinking. The assumptions listed above
are offered not to convince you to accept any of these assumptions or to “prove” them in the
formal (CT) sense, but just to offer a bit more about what is assumed in this field.
There is also one more assumption to consider, that is people shouldn’t judge other people’s
opinions.
Critical thinking requires energetically judging other people’s opinions (along with our own!) – not
in isolation, but in relation to each other. That is, CT requires asking if the reason given to support
or back up an opinion is a good one. If no good reason can be found to support an opinion, that
opinion is treated as unsupported or unproved. Generally, opinions are better if proved, and not
What About Assumptions? | 9
as good if unproved. By extension, there is a preference for reflective opinions arrived at through
slow thinking over opinions of the moment which are formed in fast thinking.
Many people put the majority of their critical thinking energy into judging the thinking of those
they disagree with. Our hope is that you will have come to understand that thinking carefully
about your own beliefs is worth more of your time, and that you will have come to appreciate the
vital importance of people who do not share your same ideas to your process of slow thinking.
10 | What About Assumptions?
Adapted from Critical Thinking – Chapter 1 by Martha Bailey, Shirlee Geiger, Hannah Love &
Martin Wittenberg licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Modifications: revised for clarity and flow
Chapter Attribution | 11
PART II
BARRIERS TO CRITICAL THINKING
12 | Barriers to Critical Thinking
Barriers to Critical Thinking
Preconceived ideas are ideas that decisively influence our thinking, but
which we have not critically reflected upon. Not all preconceived ideas are
fallacious (based on false assumptions). However, we must constantly
consider our preconceived ideas critically to test their validity. In critical
reflection we ask about the grounds for holding a belief. Do these grounds
withstand rational scrutiny? Is there sufficient evidence to support the
belief? Is the belief appropriate in its context? What weight should we give
to counterarguments and counterexamples? And so on.
There are two main obstacles to clear thinking: preconceived ideas and fallacies. Preconceived
ideas could be broadened to include social conditioning, labeling, and stereotypes. The section
below will give you the opportunity to learn to recognize these obstacles to clear thinking.
Try your luck with this riddle
“A man and his son are driving together on a stormy night. They have an accident in which the
father is killed and his son badly injured. The boy is taken to the local hospital and requires urgent
surgery. He is prepared for the operation and wheeled into the operating room. The surgeon
arrives, looks at the boy and says, “I cannot operate on my own son”.
How is this possible?
1. The man is the boy’s ________________
2. The boy is the surgeon’s ________________
3. The surgeon is the boy’s ________________
Ask a few friends, colleagues or family. See how they fare with the same riddle.
Answer: To many people the story presents a riddle. But the answer is obvious. The surgeon is the
boy’s mother. The story is a riddle only if we have a preconceived idea which associates being a
surgeon with being male. There is no good reason to hold this idea.
Now we will explore how preconceived ideas such as social conditioning, labeling and stereotyping
affect our capacity for critical reasoning. The topic of preconceived ideas is an interesting field
and it is worth exploring the various forms they take ranging from racial and gender stereotypes
to the inability to see ourselves clearly.
Barriers to Critical Thinking | 13
Social Conditioning
We are sure you will agree that we all inherit or assimilate certain biased attitudes and values from
our parents, schools, friends, and so on. Many of these attitudes and values come to us before we
are able to test them for their validity. Later on in life, some of these attitudes and values seem to
be obviously true
and we do not think about whether we need to question them. Simply by
the accident of birth, we find ourselves in a particular place at a particular
time in history. The customs, social institutions and material setting of
that place and time decisively influence the way we see the world. This
background frames our view so much that it is only with difficulty that we
can turn around and critically assess the framework itself.
Here is an interesting activity illustrating that we are conditioned to see only what we want to
see. Access your own preconceived ideas by doing the activity. Read aloud the colors, and not the
words, you see in the list below.
Think about it: Did you read the correct colors or were you influenced by the visual colors of the
words? This activity clearly illustrates our social conditioning.
Preconceived ideas are embedded in, and borrow their “obviousness” from, our social conditioning
framework. The ideal of critical thinking is to step outside this framework and make judgments
in the manner of an ideal observer. While the standard of absolute objectivity may be regarded
as a regulative ideal, it would be naïve to think that this can be achieved, especially when it
comes to issues such as morality, justice and aesthetics. But skepticism about the possibility of
absolute objectivity need not deflect us from attempting to achieve some distance from our social
backgrounds and the preconceived ideas we grew up with. Social conditioning is an obstacle to
critical reasoning, but it is not an insurmountable obstacle.
14 | Social Conditioning
As we learn the names for different things and how to go about operating as human beings in
society, we are told what is good and what is bad, what is to be desired and what is to be avoided,
and what it means to be in the world in general. Most of this is perfectly innocent and practical,
but our parents’ or guardians’ various judgments of themselves and of the world will creep in
whether we are aware of it or not. In simplified terms, some people have a positive outlook on life
while others have a negative outlook, and whether our parents believe they live in a world that
is threatening and negative, or one that is helpful and positive, will have a deep impact on our
psyche.
If our parents live in the illusion that money is important, politicians are corrupt, marriage is
nothing special, and work is tedious, then that becomes part of our own outlook as well. Some of
these negative beliefs are so deeply ingrained in our society that we don’t even notice them, and
they then become stuck in our subconscious while our context and perspective are still relatively
limited.
Consider the following claims (or opinions) about two people from different backgrounds and then
answer the questions that follow:
• Peter grew up in the wealthy northern suburbs of New York City. Therefore, Peter is likely to
believe in the values of individuality and the superiority of capitalism.
• Paul grew up in a poor suburb of Detroit, MI. Therefore, Paul is likely to believe in the value
of community and the superiority of socialism.
1. Do you think that these claims are based on sound reasoning? Why? Why not?
2. Would you say that these claims are based on preconceived ideas? Why? Why not?
3. What preconceived ideas are embedded in these arguments?
Think about it: These claims are not outcomes of reflective critical reasoning. Rather, they are
assumptions based on preconceived ideas about socioeconomic class and personal identity and
values.
Social Conditioning | 15
Labeling
Labels are a useful way of focusing on a particular
feature of a group of people or things when that
feature is relevant to the context. For example,
when we are discussing which venue to use for a
meeting, we may label someone as a person with a
“disability”. Here the label would be relevant to the
considerate treatment of someone who is confined
to a wheelchair, for example. But labeling people may sometimes hide other important and
relevant features and cause us to prejudice someone’s interests. Labeling someone “doctor” may
encourage us to accept her opinions on matters outside her area of expertise. Labeling a political
party “democratic” may encourage us to accept its policies blindly just because we support the
ideals of democracy.
16 | Labeling
Stereotypes
Stereotypes are generalizations, or assumptions, that people make about the characteristics of all
members of a group, based on an image (often wrong) about what people in that group are like.
We need labels to make quick judgments, but relying on labels leads to
stereotyping and prejudice. We ignore individual differences. Soon we see
only the label. We usually stereotype groups to which we do not belong.
The poor stereotype the rich and the rich stereotype the poor. Kids
stereotype “old folks”, who in turn stereotype “today’s kids”. We have
trouble identifying individual members of groups we stereotype. To us,
“they all look alike”. Police notice this when witnesses try to pick the guilty
person out of a line-up consisting entirely of one ethnic group. Many of us hold a stereotype that
“bad guys” should look bad; learned probably from watching movies and television. But the most
evil criminals can look very ordinary. Believers in the “criminal stereotype” sometimes protect
themselves against the label only to fall victim to the reality.
Nations at war create stereotypes to label the enemy. Soldiers find killing humans like themselves
difficult. So, propaganda departments create labels for the enemy so that they appear less than
human, and therefore more “killable”. This process is called dehumanization. When those
stereotyped believe the label applied to them it becomes a “self-fulfilling prophecy”. The label
encourages behavior that makes the label come true.
Many, and possibly most, judgments of people based on membership in a group are likely to be
based on stereotyping. Statements that begin with “people like you”, or “you people” are likely
stereotypes even if you believe they are factual. We think the best way to overcome a stereotype
is by personal contact. The more individuals in a group you know personally, the more difficult it
is to believe a stereotype. In this regard, we would like to encourage you to make contact with
fellow students who belong to cultural groups other than yours, because exposure to individual
differences is part of a true education. Travel can have the same effect. As simple a stereotype
as “Scandinavians are blue-eyed blondes” is challenged by a trip to Sweden, Finland, or Denmark
where simple observation proves it false.
Stereotypes | 17
Fallacies
A fallacy is a deceptive argument that tries to persuade us to accept the claim that is being
advanced, but the reasons in support of the claim are irrelevant or inappropriate. Put differently, a
fallacy is an error in reasoning. This differs from a factual error, which is simply being wrong about
the facts.
As you will see, some basic background information on fallacies is provided in the suggested online
references. In this reading, we shed some more light on the topic. Please remember that while
it is important to consult multiple sources, the outcome of the learning process should be that
you will be able to recognize inadequacies in arguments. In the section below, we will introduce
you to some of the most common fallacies. There are many more types of fallacies that are not
covered in this reading, such as the argument from ignorance, appeal to force (or coercion), appeal
to the masses, appeal to pity, appeal to spite, shifting the burden of proof, post hoc reasoning, red
herring fallacy, affirming the consequent, denying the antecedent, et cetera.
Slippery slope argument
A slippery slope argument leads one from seemingly unimportant and obviously true first premises
to calamitous and exaggerated consequences in the conclusion. The “slippery slope” argument
format is essentially that if you make any exceptions to a rule, or if you make rules that depend on
fine distinctions, pretty soon people will be ignoring the rule or rules entirely because they won’t
accept the difference between the exception and everything else. This kind of fallacy is also known
as the “give an inch”, or the “crack in the foundation” argument. As the names suggest, the point of
departure in this kind of “argument” is that if you allow exceptions to a rule, it creates a slope away
18 | Fallacies
from the absoluteness of the rule, down which people will slide further and further until they will
not obey the rule at all. In other words, “if you give people an inch, they will take a mile”.
This sort of “reasoning” is fallacious because there is no reason to believe that one event must
inevitably follow from another without an argument for such a claim. This is especially clear in
cases in which there are a significant number of steps or gradations between one event and
another.
Examples of slippery slope arguments:
1. “We have to stop the rise in tuition fees! The next thing you know, they’ll be charging
$50,000 a semester!”
2. “You can never give anyone a break. If you do, they’ll walk all over you.”
Straw man argument
A straw man is someone without substance, who can be easily defeated. Sometimes an opponent
will respond to an arguer’s claim by interpreting it in a way that makes it easy for him to knock
down the argument. He deliberately ignores the strong points of the argument and attacks a straw
man.
For example:
Suppose an arguer claims that nonhuman animals should be accorded rights to protect them
from unnecessary suffering because of their sensitivity to pain. A respondent says that this is
unacceptable because animals are stupid and therefore would not be able to claim their rights
anyway.
Note: This is not what was claimed in the original argument. The opponent attacks a straw man,
rather than the real issue.
To identify a straw man argument, you must be familiar enough with the topic in question to
recognize when someone is setting up a caricature. Understanding when someone is using this
deceptive tactic is the best way to call attention to the weakness of the straw man position.
Begging the question
As you will see in the online references, the fallacy of begging the question occurs when what
is supposedly proved by the conclusion of an argument is already assumed to be true in the
premises. In other words, the very thing you are trying to prove (your conclusion) is presupposed
in the supporting argument (your premises). This is sometimes called “circular reasoning”.
Carefully look at the following example:
Fallacies | 19
Deliberately ending the life of a fetus is murder. So it should be clear that abortion is nothing but
the illegal killing of the fetus.
The premise of this argument and its conclusion make exactly the same claims, because “abortion”
means the “deliberate ending of the life of a fetus” and “murder” means “illegal killing”. The premise
gives no support to the conclusion and the argument begs the question.
The fallacies discussed above make it clear why it is important to know how to take apart an
argument and examine its constituent parts. By moving beyond the wordiness, it is possible to
look at each piece individually and see that we just have the same ideas being presented more than
once.
Ad hominem argument
An ad hominem argument attacks the character or circumstances of the person who is making a
claim rather than challenging the claim itself.
Example:
John Teller’s argument is exactly what one can expect from an atheist like him. In this example, the
person is attacked rather than the soundness of her argument.
Note that there are three forms of an ad hominem argument:
• a personal attack on a person’s character
• an attack on the circumstances of the person advancing a claim, and
• an attack on a person’s interests.
False appeal to authority
The fallacy of false appeal to authority takes place when an authority or famous person is quoted
in order to get the conclusion the speaker wants rather than providing solid evidence to confirm
or refute the claim. The fallacy of false appeal to authority occurs when the “authority” cited is not
an expert in the field under discussion.
For example, there is nothing wrong with human cloning. I know this because my medical doctor
said that human cloning is morally justified.
The authority cited in this example is an expert in the field of medicine, but he or she is not an
expert in the field of ethics. To get his claim accepted, the arguer is committing the fallacy of false
appeal to authority because he is quoting an authority who is not, in fact, an authority in the field
being discussed.
20 | Fallacies
False dilemma
The fallacy of false dilemma occurs when an “either-or” choice is presented when, in fact, there
are more than two alternatives. Here is an example:
Let’s face it, John. Either you are going to be aggressive and show her who’s the boss or you are
going to let her walk all over you. I don’t need to tell you what you should do. A man’s gotta do
what a man’s gotta do.
Here the fallacy of false dilemma is committed because the arguer presents only two alternatives
when, in fact, there are more options available for dealing with the situation at hand. This kind of
either-or argument ignores the complexity of the issue.
Hasty generalization
This fallacy occurs when a generalization is made on the basis of insufficient evidence. For
example:
Mr. Williams claims: “All good engineers are men because I have not come across any good female
engineers”.
Here, Mr Williams commits the fallacy of hasty generalization because he has not looked into all
cases of engineers, male or female. The reason Mr. Williams offers for his claim or generalization
is insufficient or ill-considered.
Summary
We have noted several common fallacies in reasoning. But an argument can fail in many other
ways. The point is not to look out for particular fallacies only, but to develop a sense of when an
argument is going astray. We can only develop this sense with practice. In subsequent Modules,
you will be introduced to the techniques of argument analysis and argument evaluation in detail.
But, in the end, successful critical and philosophical reasoning relies on acquiring a knack for
recognizing bad arguments.
For additional information on fallacies check out:
• Fallacy Files
• Thou Shalt Not Commit Logical Fallacies
Exercises – Identify the Fallacy
Fallacies | 21
An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
22 | Fallacies
Adapted from “PHI -130 Critical Reasoning” – Module 3 – Obstacles to Clear Thinking by Thomas
Edison State College is licensed under CC BY 4.0 Modifications: Revised text for clarity and flow
Chapter Attribution | 23
PART III
ANALYZING ARGUMENTS
24 | Analyzing Arguments
Is It an Argument?
Arguments are made up of statements organized around the act of inference with the background
purpose of providing an answer to an issue. This means that all arguments involve collections
of statements. But not all collections of statements are arguments. Much of what is read these
days, or listened to, is not an argument in the critical thinking sense. A news report on television
or in a traditional newspaper is usually just that, a report or description of information that is
meant to describe what has happened, where, and when. Sometimes reporters provide their own
perspective on the story or an analysis of events, and these activities could be considered to be
presenting an argument. The defining factor is whether reasons are being provided to answer a
question, sometimes called an issue, in a particular way. In a traditional newspaper, the op-ed
section is where you are most likely to find some kind of argument, although sometimes writers
simply express an opinion without offering reasons or take the opportunity to rant. Beyond
the news outlets, we are constantly bombarded by arguments, with advertising as one common
source.
One way to determine if a passage contains an argument is to look for an issue and conclusion. Is
there a question being addressed? It might be stated, or unstated, but if you can identify an issue,
you have a strong clue there is an argument.
Here is a passage with the conclusion underlined, and the issue in italics:
Doomsday preppers expect the infrastructure of contemporary life to be compromised or
destroyed through a catastrophe in the near future. Is it rational to be a prepper? One key
issue in the ongoing debate is how likely a doomsday scenario is. It is irrational to use finite
resources to prepare for an emergency that is extremely unlikely. On the other hand, it is
Is It an Argument? | 25
irrational to refuse to prepare for emergencies that are very likely to happen. Given the
many ways our infrastructure can crash – conventional or nuclear war, coordinated terrorist
attacks, catastrophic weather events, infrastructure fragility, etc — I think an emergency is
very likely to happen in the near future. That’s why I think prepping makes sense.
A second way to decide if a passage contains an argument is to look for indicator words
(markers)–words or phrases which indicate that a person is using a statement as either a premise
OR a conclusion.
Premise indicators are followed by sentences functioning as premises. Common premise
indicators are:
• because
• since
• for
• provided that
• implies (that)
• for the reason that
• assuming that
• inasmuch as
The premise follows a premise indicator word or phrase and the conclusion often precedes the
indicator. Conclusion indicators are followed by sentences functioning as the conclusion.
Common conclusion indicators are:
• so
• thus
• hence
• therefore
• it follows (that)
• consequently
• supports (that)
• suggests (that)
• we may conclude (that)
• for this reason
• implies that
• means that
The conclusion FOLLOWS the conclusion indicator word or phrase, and the premises often
precede the indicator word or phrase.
26 | Is It an Argument?
The list of indicator words is not exhaustive, meaning there are more indicators than those listed
here. Also, some of these words or phrases can have other uses. For this reason, they can only
be treated as offering clues or hints. You can combine the hunt for indicator words with the first
method – looking for an issue and conclusion. If you find what you think is a conclusion and
then find or articulate the issue it relates to, you have good reason to think you have located an
argument. You then need to examine if there is at least one premise that is used to provide support
for the conclusion. Ask yourself, “Does the author/speaker give any reason that lends support
to why they think this way?” If no easily identifiable reason is given, then it is most likely not an
argument.
One key feature of fast-thinking mode is this: people EVALUATE reasoning they encounter before
they ANALYZE it. If we slow ourselves down, we reverse this order. We want to make sure we
understand what someone’s thinking IS before we decide if it is good or bad.
Your own reasoning as it passes through your consciousness might feel convincing. Or it might
trip a feeling of doubt. Either way, if the matter is important, you might want to move into slowthinking mode and analyze your own reasoning as a way of double-checking.
Exercise: Argument or Not?
An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
Is It an Argument? | 27
Standard Argument Form
To analyze an argument is to do an “active listening” step. The point is to make sure you
understand what the argument actually is before turning to the evaluative question: is it a good
argument?
Standard argument form is a graphical method for displaying arguments, making plain the purpose
of a statement by its placement. Premises are separated, numbered, and placed above a line, and
the conclusion is placed below the line. The act of inference is represented with three dots (or the
word “so”) placed next to the conclusion.
1)
2)
_______________________________________________
SO
Some cases are straightforward. Here is a passage, followed by the analysis into standard form.
I have a dental cleaning scheduled for June fourth. Wow, since today is the third, I guess that
means the appointment is for tomorrow.
Issue: Is my dental cleaning tomorrow?
1) My dental cleaning is scheduled for the fourth.
2) Today is the third.
_______________________________________________
SO: my dental cleaning is tomorrow.
The explicit indicator word is “since.” The premise follows that indicator. The conclusion is in the
clause following the comma.
If we straightened the sentence, it would read:
The appointment is for tomorrow since today is the third.
This follows a classic pattern:
(Conclusion) since (premise.)
28 | Standard Argument Form
Note: in the analysis, the words “I guess” were left out. These words signal a thinking process
is happening, and can also signal how much conviction the thinker has in their own thinking. “I
guess” signals a lack of confidence. If the passage had said, “that means my appointment must
be tomorrow,” a higher degree of confidence would be signaled. In general, these confidencesignaling words and phrases are not themselves part of the argument.
Here is another example:
If we want to increase defense spending, we would have to either cut domestic programs or
raise taxes. You know when conservatives are in control, they aren’t going to raise taxes. So,
the increase in defense spending means a cut to domestic programs, for sure.
Issue: Will increased defense spending mean a cut to domestic programs?
1) To increase defense spending requires cutting domestic spending or increasing taxes.
2) Conservatives are in control.
3) Taxes won’t be increased when conservatives are in control.
_______________________________________________
SO: an increase in defense spending means a cut to domestic programs.
This analysis is more complicated, but the first step is spotting the indicator word “so.” This
gives us a clue that the last sentence is the conclusion. We then articulate the issue by putting
the conclusion in the form of a question. The statements preceding the conclusion indicator are
premises.
We could treat this passage as listing only two premises since the premises are presented in
two separate sentences. But for purposes of evaluation, it is better to list more instead of fewer
premises. It allows a greater chance for finding common ground among people coming to an issue
from different points of view.
Note: the phrase “for sure” in the original passage signals the thinker has a high degree of
confidence in their thinking. It was left out when putting the argument into standard form.
Standard Form Examples
Standard Argument Form | 29
Most people don’t like to be lied to. So, if you lie to someone, and they find out, they are probably not going to
like it.
Issue: How do people react to be being lied to?
1) Most people don’t like to be lied to
_______________________________________________
SO: if you lie to someone, they are not going to like it.
I am working full time and going to school full time, so you know I don’t get enough sleep!
Issue: Do I get enough sleep?
1) I am working full time
2) I am going to school full time
_______________________________________________
SO: I don’t get enough sleep.
30 | Standard Argument Form
Kinds of Arguments
Contemporary Western philosophy treats arguments as coming in two main types, deductive and
inductive. The basic distinction and difference will be mentioned here.
Deductive arguments are arguments in which the premises (if true) guarantee the truth of the
conclusion. The conclusion of a successful deductive argument cannot possibly be false, assuming
its premises are true. This is what it means to label an argument as “valid” in logic. The form
or structure of a deductive argument is the essential aspect to consider. Somewhat counterintuitively, the premises do not need to be true for the conclusion to be true.
Arguments are a linguistic representation of an inference. So, using slightly different terminology,
we can define deductive inferences. In a successful deductive inference, the premises and the
denial of the conclusion constitute an inconsistent set of statements. An alternative way to
describe the same relation: in a successful deductive inference, the truth of the premises makes
the falsity of the conclusion logically impossible. A successful deductive inference is valid.
Deductive Example
1) All dogs are mammals.
2) All mammals breathe air.
_______________________________________________
SO: All dogs breathe air.
Inductive arguments are arguments with premises which make it likely that the conclusion is true
but don’t absolutely guarantee its truth. Inductive arguments are by far the most common type
of argument we see in our daily lives. We can assess inductive arguments along a spectrum of
successful (stronger) to unsuccessful (weaker). The more successful (stronger) argument suggests
that the premises mean the conclusion is probably true, with a high degree of likelihood. It
is important to remember that inductive arguments can never fully guarantee the truth of the
conclusion.
Using slightly different terminology, we can consider inductive inferences, referring to the actual
thinking process in someone’s mind. In a successful inductive inference, the truth of the premises
makes the falsity of the conclusion possible, but unlikely. Inductive inferences can be evaluated as
“stronger” or “weaker” depending on the probability.
Inductive Example
Kinds of Arguments | 31
1) The Interstate Bridge is regularly inspected by qualified engineers.
2) Vehicles have been driving over it for years.
_______________________________________________
SO: It will be safe to drive over it tomorrow.
One thing that makes applying the distinction between deductive and inductive arguments a bit
tricky is this: we can’t look only at the premises OR only at the conclusion. Instead, we need to
focus on the relationship between the premise(s) and the conclusion to tell what kind of argument
we have.
A further contributor to trickiness: we can’t be distracted by the question of whether the
statements are true or false. To classify an argument as deductive or inductive, we need to grant
that the premises are true in a hypothetical way. We have to ask the question, “If those premises
were true, would it be IMPOSSIBLE for the conclusion to be false?” If so, it is a deductive argument.
Or “If those premises were true, would it be UNLIKELY, but still possible, that the conclusion is
false? If so, it is an inductive argument.
As an example, consider this valid deductive argument:
1) All clouds are made out of spun sugar.
2) Anything made out of spun sugar is high in calories.
_______________________________________________
SO: All clouds are high in calories.
This argument is deductively successful because the truth of the premises would make the falsity
of the conclusion impossible. Odd, isn’t it?
Some arguments are presented with premises missing. In those cases, the determination of
deductive or inductive will depend on how that premise is filled in.
For example: I had an apple for lunch, so I had something healthy!
32 | Kinds of Arguments
Deductive
Inductive
P1) I had an apple for lunch.
P1) I had an apple for lunch.
P2) All apples are healthy. (implied)
P2) Most apples are healthy. (implied)
SO I had something healthy
SO I had something healthy
Exercise: Deductive or Inductive?
Determine if the following arguments are deductive or inductive. It is a good idea to put the arguments in
standard form first, so you are clear about the relation between premises and conclusion.
An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
Kinds of Arguments | 33
Explanations and Reported Arguments
The “reason” aspect of determining whether some passage is or contains an argument is crucial.
For example, pick up any newspaper or online news source that has an op-ed section. If you
peruse through the articles you might at first think that every article contains an argument, or is
an argument. However, when you carefully apply the two steps on the previous page, you should
begin to realize that sometimes the opinion is simply an unsupported fast-thinking opinion and
sometimes it’s a full-on rant. The author makes a statement that seems like a conclusion (i.e., they
take a stance on something), but fails to provide any support or reasoning as to why they have
that opinion or thought. Again, ask yourself, “Are there any reasons given as to why they think this
way?”
There are two other common cases that at first appear to be arguments, but in fact, are not
considered “original” arguments:
Reported arguments are statements which say that so-and-so argued in a certain way.
These kinds of arguments are simply a report (like a book report) of someone else’s
argument. It could be analyzed as an argument, but it is possible something was omitted or
added by the person who did the reporting.
Explanations can be hard to distinguish from arguments because they attempt to show
why or how something happens (or has happened). Put more succinctly, an explanation is
a statement or statements offered in answer to the question “why did that event occur?”
Explanations can be in the form of cause/effect relationships, natural laws, functions or
underlying mechanisms (from Stephen Carey’s Beginners Guide to the Scientific Method).
These are not arguments in the sense we are using the word because there is little if any
reason to doubt the truth of the conclusion. With this in mind, the vast majority of reports
about scientific studies or discoveries are simply descriptions of the findings. There may be
a latent argument about how the study or discovery could be applied to society or the world,
but this is usually at the end of the report.
Reported Argument, Explanation, or Original Argument?
Review each statement and determine if it’s a reported argument, explanation, or original argument.
34 | Explanations and Reported Arguments
An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
Explanations and Reported Arguments | 35
This chapter is adapted from Chapter 3: The Process of Argument of Analysis of Critical Thinking:
Analysis and Evaluation of Argument by Martha Bailey, Shirlee Geiger, Hannah Love & Martin
Wittenberg licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Modifications: Revised text for clarity and flow
36 | Chapter Attribution
PART IV
MAKING AN ARGUMENT
Making an Argument | 37
Making an Argument
38 | Making an Argument
Scholarly conversation makes an argument for a point of view
Nearly all scholarly writing makes an argument. That’s because its purpose is to create and share
new knowledge so it can be debated to confirm, disprove, or improve it. That arguing takes place
mostly in journals and scholarly books and at conferences. It’s called the scholarly conversation,
and it’s that conversation that moves forward what we humans learn and know.
Your scholarly writing for classes should do the same—make an argument—just like your
professors’ journal article, scholarly book, and conference presentation writing does. You may
not have realized that the writing you’re required to do mirrors what scholars in universities, the
country, and all over the world must do to create new knowledge and debate it. Most arguments
put forth a new theory, hypothesis, or new view of a current or ongoing issue. Of course, you’re
probably a beginner at constructing arguments in writing, while most professors have been at it
for some time. And your audience, for now, also may be more limited than your professors. But the
process is much the same. As you complete your research assignments, you, too, are entering the
scholarly conversation.
Making an argument means trying to convince others that you are correct as you describe a thing,
situation, relationship, or phenomenon and to persuade them to take a particular action. This skill
is important not just in college, but also for nearly every professional job you hold after college. So
learning how to make an argument is good job preparation, even if you do not choose a scholarly
career.
| 39
If you realize that your final product for your research project is to make an argument, you will
have a significant head start. By keeping this in mind you will know that the resources you’re going
to need are those that support the components of an argument for are writing your audience.
Happily (and not coincidentally), most of those components coincide with the information needs
we’ll be talking about. We will be discussing meeting information needs by using a variety of
resources that will enable you to write the corresponding argument component in your final
product.
40 |
Components of an Argument
Components of an Argument | 41
Making an argument in an essay, term paper, blog post, or other format is like laying out a
case in court. Just as there are conventions that attorneys must adhere to as they make their
arguments in court, there are conventions in arguments made in research assignments. Among
those conventions is to use the components of an argument.
42 |
Let’s be clear the components of arguments include:
1. Claim: What do you want me to believe? What’s your point?
2. Reasons: Why do you say that? Why should I agree?
3. Evidence: How do you know? Can you back it up?
4. Acknowledgment and Response: But what about…?
5. Warrant: How does that follow? What’s your logic? Can you explain your reasoning?
EXAMPLE: Argument as a Dialog – Can you pick out the argument components?
Here’s a dialog of an argument, with the most important components labeled.
| 43
44 |
(Booth, et. al., 2016, p. 111)
| 45
Order of the Components
46 | Order of the Components
The order in which the components should appear in your argument essays, papers, and posters
may depend on which discipline your course is in. So always adhere to the advice provided by your
professor and what you learn in class.
One common arrangement for argument essays and term papers is to begin the essay with an
introduction that explains why the situation is important—why the reader should care about it.
Your research question will probably not appear in the introduction, but your answer to it (your
thesis, or claim) usually appears as the last sentence or two of the introduction.
The body of your essay or paper follows and consists of:
• Your reasons why the thesis is correct or at least reasonable.
• The evidence that supports each reason, often occurring right after the reason the evidence
supports.
• An acknowledgment that some people could have objections, reservations,
counterarguments, or alternative solutions to your argument and a statement of each.
Posters often don’t have room for this component.
• A response to each acknowledgment that explains why that criticism is incorrect or not very
important. Sometimes you might have to concede a point you think is unimportant if you
can’t really refute it.
After the body, the paper or essay ends with a conclusion, which states your thesis in a slightly
different way than occurred in the introduction. The conclusion also may mention why research
in this situation is important. Again, posters often don’t have much room for this component.
A Blueprint for Argument
It’s no accident that people are said to make arguments—they’re all constructed, and these
components are the building blocks. The components are important because of what they
contribute. Each generally, though not always, appears in a certain order because they build on or
respond to one another.
For example, diagrammed in the image below, the thesis or claim is derived from the initial
question. The reasons are bolstered by evidence to support the claim. Objections are raised,
acknowledged, and subsequently responded to.
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The components of the argument build on each other.
Exercises: Order of argument components
48 |
An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
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Where You Get the Components
50 | Where You Get the Components
This section will help you figure out which components may come from your professor, which you
have to think about, which you have to write, and which you have to find in your sources.
Here, again, are the components we’ll cover:
• The research question you (or your professor) want to answer
• Your claim or thesis.
• One or more reasons for your thesis.
• Evidence for each reason.
• Others’ objections, counterarguments, or alternative solutions.
• Your acknowledgment of others’ objections, counterarguments, or alternative solutions.
• Your response to others’ objections, counterarguments, or alternative solutions.
The Question You Want to Answer
Sometimes your professor will give you the research question, but probably more often he or she
will expect you to develop your own from an assigned topic. You will learn how to develop research
questions in another section. Though vitally important, they are often not stated in essays or
term papers but are usually stated in reports of original studies, such as theses, dissertations, and
journal articles.
Examples: Research Questions
• How do some animals’ bones help control their weight?
• Did the death of his beloved daughter have any effect on the writings of Mark Twain?
Your Claim or Thesis
You write the claim or thesis, it doesn’t come directly from a resource. Instead, it is the conclusion
you come to in answer to your research question after you’ve read/listened to/viewed some
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sources. So it is a statement, not a question or a hypothesis that you plan to prove or disprove with
your research.
After you’ve read/listened to/viewed more sources, you may need to change your thesis. That
happens all the time–not because you did anything wrong but because you learned more.
Examples: Revised Thesis
• Bone cells monitor whether more or less weight is pressing down on the skeleton and send
biochemical signals to appetite centers in their brains to turn appetite down or up,
accordingly.
• Mark Twain wrote more urgently and with less humor during the four years immediately
after the death of his daughter.
One or More Reasons
You write what you believe makes your claim or thesis (the answer to your research question) true.
That’s your reason or reasons. Each reason is a summary statement of evidence you found in your
research. The kinds of evidence considered convincing vary by discipline, so you will be looking at
different resources, depending on your discipline. How many reasons you need depends on how
complex your thesis and subject matter are, what you found in your sources, and how long your
essay or term paper must be. It’s always a good idea to write your reasons in a way that is easy for
your audience to understand and be persuaded by.
Examples: Reasons
• Animals, including humans, have a biological tendency to regain any weight that they lose
and lose any weight that they gain, seemingly in an effort to maintain whatever weight they
have sustained for some time. Skeletons are logical places where any gains or losses could be
noted, and recent studies seem to show that osteocytes (a kind of bone cell) are involved in
whether appetites go up or down after weight gain or loss.
• My content analysis and a comparison of publication rates four years before and after Mark
Twain’s daughter died indicate that his writing was more urgent and less humorous for four
years after. It is reasonable to conclude that her death caused that change.
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Evidence for Each Reason
You write this also. This is the evidence you summarized earlier to support each of the reasons
that your thesis is true. You will be directly quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing your sources
to make the case that your answer to your research question is correct, or at least reasonable.
Examples: Evidence for Reasons
• Report the results of studies about osteocytes’ possible effect on weight gain or loss.
• Report the results of your comparison of writing content and publication rate before and
after Twain’s daughter’s death.
Others’ Objections, Counterarguments, or Alternative Solutions
Do any of your sources not agree with your thesis? You’ll have to bring those up in your term
paper. In addition, put yourself in your readers’ shoes. What might they not find logical in your
argument? In other words, which reason(s) and corresponding evidence might they find lacking?
Did you find clues to what these could be in your resources? Or maybe you can imagine them
thinking some aspect of what you think is evidence doesn’t make sense.
Examples: Objections, Counterarguments, or Alternative Solutions
• Imagine that some readers might think: The hormone leptin is released by fat cells when they
are added to animals’ bodies so it is leptin that tells appetite centers to turn down when
weight is gained.
• Imagine that some readers might think: Computerized content analysis tools are sort of
blunt instruments and shouldn’t be used to analyze Twain’s work.
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Your Acknowledgement of Others’ Objections, Counterarguments, or Alternative Solutions
So what will you write to bring up each of those objections, counterarguments, and alternative
solutions? Some examples:
• I can imagine skeptics wanting to point out…
• Perhaps some readers would say…
• I think those who come from XYZ would differ with me…
It all depends on what objections, counterarguments, and alternative solutions your audience or
your imagination come up with.
Examples: Acknowledgement of Objections, Counterarguments, or Alternative Solutions
• Some readers may point out that the hormone leptin, which is released by fat cells, signals
appetite centers to lower the appetite when weight is gained.
• Readers may think that a computerized content analysis tool cannot do justice to the
subtleties of the text.
Response to Others’ Objections, Counterarguments, or Alternative Solutions
You must write your response to each objection, counterargument, or alternative solution brought
up or that you’ve thought of. You’re likely to have found clues for what to say in your sources. The
reason you have to include this is that you can’t very easily convince your audience until you show
them how your claim stacks up against the opinions and reasoning of other people who don’t at
the moment agree with you.
Examples: Response to Others’ Objections, Counterarguments, or Alternative Solutions
• But leptin must not be the entire system since many animals do keep on the new weight.
• Unlike other content tools, the XYZ Content Analysis Measure is able to take into account an
author’s tone.
54 |
Helping Others Follow
Helping Others Follow | 55
As you switch from component to component in your paper, you’ll be making what are called
rhetorical moves—taking subsequent steps to move your argument along and be persuasive. Your
readers will probably know what you’re doing because the components in an everyday oral
argument are the same as in a written argument. But why you’re switching between components
of your argument, and with these particular sources, might be less clear.
The ideas and examples in this section are informed by They Say/I Say from Gerald Graff and
Cathy Birkenstein. The fourth edition of They Say/I Say provides templates of actual language to
be used in written arguments. This can be extremely helpful for beginning writers because it
takes some of the mystery out of what to say and when to say it. For these templates, check the
book out from your library. You can help readers follow your argument by inserting phrases that
signal why you’re doing what you’re doing. Here are some examples:
• To state that what you’re saying in your thesis (answer to your research question) is in
opposition to what others have said:
◦ “Many people have believed …, but I have a different opinion.”
• To move from a reason to a summary of a research study that supports it (evidence).
◦ “Now let’s take a look at the supporting research.”
• To introduce a summary of a resource you’ve just mentioned.
◦ “The point they make is…”
• If the objection is that you’re not being realistic.
◦ “But am I being realistic?”
• To acknowledge an objection you believe a reader could have.
◦ “At this point, I should turn to an objection some are likely to be raising…”
• To move from the body of an essay to the conclusion.
◦ “So in conclusion…”
Phrases like these can grease the skids of your argument in your readers’ minds, making it a
lot easier for them to quickly get it instead of getting stuck on figuring out why you’re bringing
something up at a particular point. You will have pulled them into an argument conversation.
Examples: The Language of Arguments Done
The blog that accompanies the book They Say/I Say with Readings, by Gerald Graff, Cathy
56 |
Birkenstein, and Russel Durst, contains short, elegantly constructed contemporary arguments
from a variety of publications. Take a look at the They Say/I Say blog for a moment and read part
of at least one of the readings to see how it can be helpful to you the next time you have to make
a written argument.
Additional Advice Sources
Take a look at these sites for argument essay advice for students:
• Writing Mechanics – Ohio State Center for the Study and Teaching of Writing
• Argument in College Writing – Excelsior Online Writing Lab (OWL)
• Argument Handout – University of North Carolina Writing Center
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Adapted from “Choosing & Using Sources: A guide to academic research” by Ohio State
University Libraries, is licensed under CC BY 4.0 Modifications: Text revised for clarity and flow
58 | Chapter Attribution
PART V
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Research Questions | 59
The Purpose of Research Questions
60 | The Purpose of Research Questions
Research questions are very important.
Both professional and successful student researchers develop research questions. That’s because
research questions are more than handy tools; they are essential to the research process.
Thinking critically about a topic and crafting a question should be fundamental to your research.
By defining exactly what the researcher is trying to find out, these questions influence the steps
taken to conduct the research. That’s true even if the research is not for academic purposes but
for other areas of our lives. For instance, if you’re seeking information about a health problem to
learn whether you have anything to worry about, research questions will make it possible for you
to more effectively decide whether to seek medical help–and how quickly. Or, if you’re researching
a potential employer, having developed and used research questions will mean you’re able to more
confidently decide whether to apply for an internship or job at that company. The confidence
you’ll have when making such decisions will come from knowing that the information you use was
gathered by conscious thought rather than serendipity and whim.
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Background Reading
62 | Background Reading
It’s wise to do some more reading about that narrower
topic once you have it. For one reason, you probably
don’t know much about it yet. For another, such
reading will help you learn the terms used by
professionals and scholars who have studied your
narrower topic. Those terms are certain to be helpful
when you’re looking for sources later, so jot them
down or otherwise remember them. For instance, if
you were going to research the treatment of children
with coronavirus, this background reading would
Get a good look at your topic through
background reading.
teach you that professionals and scholars usually use
the term instead COVID-19 instead of coronavirus when they write about it. Often, they also use
SARS-CoV-2 infection or 2019-nCOV infection to identify the strain. If you didn’t learn that, you
would miss the kinds of sources you’ll eventually need for your assignment. Keep in mind your
ability to think slowly in order to throughly explore a given topic.
Most sources other than journal articles are good sources for this initial reading, including the
New York Times or other mainstream American news outlets, Wikipedia, encyclopedias for the
discipline your topic is in (horticulture for the crabapple bud development topic, for instance),
dictionaries for the discipline, and manuals, handbooks, blogs, and web pages that could be
relevant. This initial reading could cause you to narrow your topic further, which is fine because
narrower topics lead to greater specificity for what you want to find out. After this upfront
work, you’re ready to start developing the research question(s) you will try to answer for your
assignment.
Tip: Keeping Track of Your Information
While you are in the background reading phase of your research you will come across a lot of
sources and don’t know yet if they will prove useful in the long run. A handy type of software
to help you keep track of all your findings is called citation management software. It will also be
extremely valuable when it comes to using the resources you end up needing. There are several
that are freely available. Take a look at Zotero, Mendeley, or Citavi.
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Fuel Your Inspiration
It’s worth remembering that reading, scanning, looking at, and listening to information resources
is very useful during any step of the process to develop research questions. Doing so can jog our
memories, give us details that will help us focus, and help us connect disparate information–all
of which will help us come up with research questions that we find interesting. The time spent
exploring your topic will aid the direction of your research and ultimately the information resorces
that you will utlize during the search process.
64 |
Narrowing a Topic
Narrowing a Topic | 65
For many students, having to start with a research question is the biggest difference between how
they did research in high school and how they are required to carry out their college research
projects. It’s a process of working from the outside in: you start with the world of all possible topics
(or your assigned topic) and narrow down until you’ve focused your interest enough to be able to
tell precisely what you want to find out, instead of only what you want to “write about.”
66 |
Process of Narrowing a Topic
Visualize
narrowing a topic
as starting with all
possible topics and
choosing narrower
and narrower
subsets until you
have a specific
enough topic to
form a research
question.
All Possible Topics
– You’ll need to
narrow your topic
to do research
effectively. Without
specific areas of
focus, it will be
hard to even know
where to begin.
Assigned Topics
– Ideas about a
narrower topic can
come from
anywhere. Often, a
narrower topic
boils down to
deciding what’s
interesting to you.
One way to get
ideas is to read
background
information in a
source like
Wikipedia.
Topic Narrowed by
Initial Exploration
– It’s wise to do
some background
reading about that
narrower topic to
a) learn more about
it and b) learn
specialized terms
used by
professionals and
scholars who study
it.
Topic Narrowed to
Research
Question(s) – A
research question
defines exactly
what you are trying
to find out. It will
influence most of
the steps you take
to conduct the
research.
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Why Narrow a Topic?
Once you have a need for research—say, an assignment—you may need to prowl around a bit
online to explore the topic and figure out what you actually want to find out and write about.
For instance, maybe your assignment is to develop a poster about “spring” for an introductory
horticulture course. The instructor expects you to narrow that topic to something you are
interested in and that is related to your class.
68 |
Another way to view a narrowed topic is as a sliver of the whole topic.
Ideas about a narrower topic can come from anywhere. In this case, a narrower topic boils down
to deciding what’s interesting to you about “spring” that is related to what you’re learning in your
horticulture class and small enough to manage in the time you have. One way to get ideas would be
to read about spring in Wikipedia, a reference database such as CREDO, or a subject encyclopedia.
Look for things that seem interesting and relevant to your class, and then let one thing lead to
another as you keep reading and thinking about likely possibilities that are more narrow than
the enormous “spring” topic. Be sure to pay attention to the references at the bottom of most
Wikipedia pages and pursue any that look interesting. Your instructor is not likely to let you cite
Wikipedia, but those references may be scholarly sources that you could eventually decide to use
and cite.
Or, instead, if it is spring at the time you could start by just looking around, admire the blooming
trees on campus, and decide you’d like your poster to be about bud development on your favorites,
the crabapple trees.
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Jada Narrows Her Topic and Works on a Research Question
The Situation: Jada, an undergraduate, has been assigned a research paper on Antarctica. Her
professor expects students to narrow the topic to something more specific about Antarctica
because they won’t have time to cover that whole topic. Then they are to come up with a research
question that their paper will answer.
The professor explained that the research question should be something they are interested in
answering and that it must be more complicated than what they could answer with a quick Google
search. She also said that research questions often start with either the word “how” or “why.”
Try it out:
1. Read what Jada is thinking below as she tries to do the assignment.
2. After the reading, answer the questions based on your own approach to research.
3. Check your answers with ours.
4. Keep this passage in mind the next time you start a research topic and mimic the process
that Jada uses.
Jada’s Thoughts
Okay, I have to write—a research paper—about Antarctica. I don’t know anything about that
place—and I can’t think of a single thing I’d like to know about Antarctica. Calls for Wikipedia, I
guess.
Guess I’ll go here https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctica. Just skimming. Pretty boring stuff.
Oh, look– Antarctica’s a desert! I guess “desert” doesn’t have to do with heat. That’s interesting.
70 |
Why is it considered a desert, there’s lots of snow and ice there. Have to think about that—what
makes a desert a desert.
It says one to five thousand people live there in research stations. Year-round. And there is
no evidence that it was seen by humans until the 19th century. I never thought about whether
anybody lived in Antarctica first, before explorers and scientists.
Lots of names—explorers, others. It says Amundsen reached the South pole first. Who’s
Amundsen? But wait. It says, “One month later, the doomed Scott Expedition reached the pole.”
Doomed? Doomed is always interesting. Where is there more information about the Scott
Expedition? There is only one sentence. Why would they have just that one sentence? I’ll have to
click on the Scott Expedition link.
Members of the Robert F. Scott Expedition
Terra Nova…
But it gives me a page called Terra Nova Expedition. What does that have to do with Scott? Who
was he and why was his expedition doomed? There he is in a photo before going to Antarctica.
Guess he was English. Other photos show him and his team in the snow. Oh, the expedition was
named Terra Nova after the ship they sailed this time—in 1911. Scott was also there earlier on
another ship.
Lots of info about preparing for the trip. Then stuff about expedition journeys once they were in
Antarctica. Not very exciting—nothing about being doomed.
Wait. The last paragraph of the first section says “For many years after his death, Scott’s status as a
| 71
tragic hero was unchallenged,” but then it says that in the 20th-century people looked closer at the
expedition’s management and at whether Scott and some of his team could be personally blamed
for the catastrophe. That “remains controversial,” it says. Catastrophe? Personally, blamed? Hmm.
Back to skimming. It all seems horrible to me. They actually planned to kill their ponies for meat.
Everything was extremely difficult. And then when they arrived at the South Pole, they found that
the explorer Amundsen had beaten them. Must have been a big disappointment.
The homeward march was even worse. The weather was bad. The dog sleds that were supposed to
meet them periodically with supplies didn’t show up. Or maybe the Scott group was lost and didn’t
go to the right meeting places. Maybe that’s what that earlier statement meant about whether the
decisions that were made were good ones. Scott’s diary said the crystallized snow made it seem
like they were pushing and pulling the sleds through dry sand.
Antarctica
Rocks?!
It says that before things turned really bad, Scott allowed his men to put 30 pounds of rocks
with fossils on the sleds they were pushing and dragging. Now was that sensible? But here it says
that those rocks are the proof of continental drift. So how did they know those rocks were so
important? Was that knowledge worth their lives? Could they have known?
Scott’s diary is quoted about their troubles on the expedition—the relentless cold, frostbite, and
the deaths of their dogs. One entry tells of a guy on Scott’s team “now with hands as well as feet
pretty well useless” voluntarily leaving the tent and walking to his death. The diary says that the
team member’s last words were ”I am just going outside and may be some time.”
72 |
They all seem lost and desperate but still have those sleds. Why would you keep pulling and
pushing those sleds containing an extra 30 pounds of rock when you are so desperate and every
step is life or death?
Last page from the Robert F. Scott
Diary
A diary…
Then there’s Scott’s last diary entry, on March 29, 1912. “… It seems a pity but I do not think I can
write more.”. The diary apparently gave lots of locations of where he thought they were but maybe
they were lost. It says they ended up only 11 miles from one of their supply stations.
I’d love to see that diary. Wouldn’t that be cool? Online? I’ll Google it. Yes! it’s at the British
Museum. Look at that! I can see Scott’s last entry IN HIS OWN HANDWRITING! And there’s a
digital copy too.
I wonder if I should narrow my topic to just the controversy over whether the expedition was
doomed because of the bad decisions made by Scott and his crew? Maybe it’s too big a topic if I
consider the decisions of all team members. Maybe I should just consider Scott’s decisions. They
should be noted in the diary.
So what research question could come from that? Maybe: how did Scott’s decisions contribute to
his team’s deaths in Antarctica? Need to be more focused: How did Scott’s decisions after reaching
the South Pole help or hurt the chances of his team getting back safely? There are several of his
| 73
decisions discussed on the Wikipedia page, and I know there are sources at the bottom of that
page.
Map of Antarctica
Really, a desert?
Let me think—what else did I see that was interesting or puzzling about all this? I remember being
surprised that Antarctica is a desert. So maybe I could make the desert of Antarctica my topic. My
research question could be something like: Why is Antarctica considered a desert? But there has
to be a definition of deserts somewhere online, so that doesn’t sound complicated enough. Maybe
those rocks with the fossils in them. It’s just so hard to imagine desperate explorers continuing
to push those sleds with an extra 30 pounds of rocks on them. Did they somehow know how
important they would be? Why didn’t they ditch them? Or maybe they just didn’t realize how close
to death they were. Maybe I could narrow my Antarctica topic to those rocks.
Maybe my topic could be something like The rocks that Scott and his crew found in Antarctica that
prove continental drift. Maybe my research question could be: How did Scott’s explorers choose
the rocks they kept? Or maybe I should stick with why Scott and his crew made bad decisions.
74 |
I should ask.
I think my professor is the only one who can tell me whether my question about the rocks has
enough to do with Antarctica. Since she’s the one who will be grading my paper. But a librarian can
help me figure out the other things. So Dr. Sanders and a librarian are next.
Questions
1. Was Jada’s choice to start with Wikipedia a good choice? Why or why not?
2. Have you ever skimmed resources first and then read more deeply later?
3. At what points does Jada think about where to look for information?
4. At the end of this session, Jada hasn’t yet settled on a research question. So what did she
accomplish? What good was all this searching and thinking?
Our Answers
1. Was Jada’s choice to start with Wikipedia a good choice? Although not usually cited in research papers,
Wikipedia is a good place to learn more about all kinds of topics. Information is usually general in nature
and you can check out the references at the bottom of the page. Use those links to find additional
resources. This may lead you to library based sources like subject dictionaries, encyclopedias, or guides.
2. Have you ever skimmed resources first and then read more deeply later? When first exploring your
topic you may choose to skim resources. That is a very brief read looking for interesting and useful
information. Later when you select a topic and look for resources that provide deeper, more focused
information.
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3. At what points does Jada think about where to look for information? After receiving the core part of the
topic (Antarctica), she begins looking for general information and becomes curious about the Scott
expedition. As she learns more she thinks about where she can look for additional information, such as
the diary mentioned in Wikipedia..
4. At the end of this session, Jada hasn’t yet settled on a research question. So what did she accomplish?
What good was all this searching and thinking? The background information that Jada looked at helped
her to focus on the problems with the Scott Expedition. She slowly narrows down some of the issues and
centers on the weight of the rocks. She considers two different questions (one more narrow than the
other) and intends to seek input from the professor and librarian. Taking the time to explore her topic
has given her ideas useful for a solid research question.
Exercise: Determine the Topic Order
An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
76 |
Regular vs. Research Questions
Regular vs. Research Questions | 77
Most of us look for information to answer questions every day, and we often act on the answers
to those questions. Are research questions any different from most of the questions for which we
seek information? Yes. See how they’re different by looking over the examples of both kinds below
and answering questions about them in the next activity.
Examples: Regular vs. Research Questions
Regular Question: What time is my movie showing at Lennox on Friday?
Research Question: How do “sleeper” films end up having outstanding attendance figures?
Regular Question: How many children in the U.S. have allergies?
Research Question: How does his or her country of birth affect a child’s chances of developing
asthma?
Regular Question: Where is the Apple, Inc. home office?
Research Question: Why are Apple’s marketing efforts so successful?
Regular Question: What is COVID?
Research Question: How could decision-making about whether to declare a pandemic be
improved?
Regular Question: Does MLA style recommend the use of generic male pronouns intended to refer
to both males and females?
Research Question: How do age, gender, IQ, and socioeconomic status affect whether students
interpret generic male pronouns as referring to both males and females?
78 |
Exercise: Identify the Research Question
An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
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Influence of a Research Question
80 | Influence of a Research Question
Whether you’re developing research questions for your personal life, your work for an employer,
or for academic purposes, the process always forces you to figure out exactly:
• What you’re interested in finding out.
• What is feasible for you to find out given your time, money, and access to information
sources.
• How to find information, including what research methods will be necessary and what
information sources will be relevant.
• What kind of claims you’ll be able to make or conclusions you’ll be able to draw about what
you found out.
For academic purposes, you may have to develop research questions to carry out both small and
large assignments. A smaller assignment may include doing research for a class discussion or to,
say, write a blog post for a class; larger assignments may have you conduct research and critical
assessment, then report it in a lab report, poster, term paper, or article. For large projects, the
research question (or questions) you develop will define or at least heavily influence:
• Your topic, which is a part of your research question, effectively narrows the topic you’ve
first chosen or been assigned by your instructor.
• What, if any, hypotheses you test.
• Which information sources are relevant to your project.
• Which research methods are appropriate.
• What claims you can make or conclusions you can come to as a result of your research,
including what thesis statement you should write for a term paper or what you should write
about in the results section based on the data you collected in your science or social science
study.
| 81
Your research question drives your hypothesis, research methods, sources, and your claims or conclusions.
Influence on Thesis
Within an essay, poster, or term paper, the thesis is the researcher’s answer to the research
question(s). So as you develop research questions, you are effectively specifying what any thesis
in your project will be about. While perhaps many research questions could have come from
your original topic, your question states exactly which one(s) your thesis will be answering. For
example, a topic that starts as “desert symbiosis” could eventually lead to a research question that
is “how does the diversity of bacteria in the gut of the Sonoran Desert termite contribute to the
termite’s survival?” In turn, the researcher’s thesis will answer that particular research question
instead of the numerous other questions that could have come from the desert symbiosis topic.
Developing research questions is all part of a process that leads to the specificity of your project.
82 |
Tip: Don’t Make These Mistakes
Sometimes students inexperienced at working with research questions confuse them with the
search statements they will type into the search box of a search engine or database when looking
for sources for their project. Or, they confuse research questions with the thesis statement they
will write when they report their research. The activity below will help you sort things out.
Influence on Hypothesis
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