Communications Question

Module 1 Group Analysis Paper Assignment Guideline•
Total Points: 100 points
•
Due date: See the course schedule and Dropbox.
•
Length of Paper: at least 5-6 pages in full length (excluding cover and references
page; there is no maximum limit for this paper)
Format: Only Word document format is acceptable. Another format (e.g., PDF) will
NOT be accepted and returned to students; Failure to resubmit a paper in a changed
acceptable format in timely manner will result in an automatic zero point.
•
Headings/subheadings: The paper should have separate main/subsection
headings (please refer to the paper format example in the below). The paper that did
not meet this requirement will NOT be accepted and returned. If the deadline is over
when students resubmit correct format of the paper, it will be counted as a late
paper.
•
You should finish uploading paper before 11:59PM. If you did not finish
uploading your paper before 11:59PM, the system will purge your paper
submission. This problem including all other technology problem will NOT be
a valid excuse. If you have any technology problem, contact the Information
Technology Help Desk (X5345).
1. Chapter 1-4 deal with the important issues of group dynamics. For this paper, you will
choose a group which you have been a part of (e.g., full time/part time work, volunteer
group, community, church, school, etc. but not family). Then you will analyze and explain
the effectiveness of your chosen group based on five topics as listed below:
2. The paper should contain the followings:
A. Cover page (including the title of the paper, essay title, course title & no., and your
name).
B. Introduction (at least 1 page): Have a clear introduction:
– Why did you choose this group for your analysis?
1
– Describe the purpose of the group, how many people were in
the group, and where this group was (e.g., workplace, church, community, etc.).
– Have a clear thesis statement and a preview statement.
C. Analysis (at least 3 pages): You should address the five topics with
questions that follow. Each topic should have a
separate heading.
1) Group Development: Using Tuckman’s group development stages, discuss the
formation and development of your group.
a. Define each stage (i.e., Tuckman’s group development stage) briefly. Cite the
textbook.
b. Regarding your chosen group that went through the stages of group development,
briefly describe what happened in each stage in your group experience
c. Define primary tension and secondary tension. Cite textbook.
d. Describe how primary tension and secondary tension played out in your group
experience. How well did your group resolve primary tension and secondary tension?
2) Group Norms:
a. Define explicit and implicit norms. Cite textbook.
b. Identify your group’s explicit and implicit norms.
c. Did these norms help or hinder your group’s ability to achieve its goals?
d. Was there anyone who did not conform to group norms? If so, what were the
consequences?
3) Group Roles:
a. Define group task roles, social maintenance roles and disruptive behaviors (selfcentered role). Cite textbook.
b. Then, did any specific type of roles under these three roles (i.e., task, social
maintenance and disruptive behaviors) predominate? Define at least two specific
roles that predominate (e.g., opinion provider, harmonizer, attacker). Cite
textbook.
d. Describe how these specific roles are played out in group interaction.
4) Diversity in Group:
a. How diverse is your group (culture, gender, age, etc.)? Describe it.
2
b. How does this diversity (differences) affect your group interaction? Discuss it.
c. To what extent did your group strive to understand, respect, and adapt to member
differences? Discuss clearly (Do not answer like “we fully understand and respect
the diversity with open-mindedness”).
d. Did conflict arise in the group? If yes, how did the group and its members respond to
the conflict? Was the conflict successfully resolved? Why or why not?
(If there is no conflict, discuss what factors contribute to less or no conflict in your
group situation).
5) Balancing Dialectics: Out of 9 dialectics in the textbook, choose at least four of them
which was displayed in your group and analyze accordingly
a. Briefly define your chosen four dialectics (e.g., individual goals vs. group goals,
Conforming vs. Nonconforming, Task Dimensions vs. Social Dimensions, etc.). Cite
textbook.
b. Provide specific examples of group behavior in terms of each of your chosen
dialectics.
c. Then, in a separate paragraph, discuss how these chosen dialectics are wellbalanced or not in your group. Provide specific examples. (Do not answer, “our
group is well-balanced because we do understand each other”).
D. Conclusion (at least 1 page): have a clear conclusion
a. Summarize your main points discussed in the paper.
b. Discuss: If you were to work with this group again, what would you suggest for
group improvement? Provide theory-based and practical suggestions for group
improvement.
E. References
-Cite your textbook and any other sources you used.
-All citations are in correct APA (7th edition) style.
F. The Statement of Originality
Provide the following statement after the “References.” The title (i.e., The Statement of
Originality”) should be included.
The Statement of Originality
3
As a member of the academic community, my typed name below certifies that this paper is my original
work. I am familiar with and acknowledge my responsibility to follow the guidelines for academic
integrity as described in the course syllabus. I have used quotation marks for materials quoted verbatim,
and I have identified all sources of information, whether quoted verbatim or paraphrased, that I used to
write this paper.
Name: (type in your name)
4. LATE ESSAYS ARE AUTOMATICALLY DROPPED 20 PERCENT. Late essays are ONLY
accepted seven days past original due date. Assignments not submitted to the late Dropbox
will be recorded as a ZERO for that assignment.
5. Make sure you have the following in your paper:
•
Use headings to delineate different parts of the paper (again, each analysis
topic should have a separate heading, i.e., group development, group
norms, etc.).
•
Write your paper using paragraph form – no bullets or numbers
•
Write using correct grammar and structure. Sloppy writing indicates sloppy
thinking. You should have your paper proofread.
6. For details, see the “Guidelines for Papers” that is available in the Course Documents
section of the content area of D2L. This will give you examples of title pages, headings, and
proper citation forms.
4
Working in Groups
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Working in Groups
Communication Principles
and Strategies
Seventh Edition
Isa N. Engleberg
Prince George’s Community College
Dianna R. Wynn
Nash Community College
330 Hudson Street, NY, NY 10013
VP, Product Development: Dickson Musslewhite
Director, Content Strategy and Development: Sharon
Geary
Editor in Chief: Ashley Dodge
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Acknowledgements of third party content appear 274–275 which constitutes an extension of this copyright page.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Engleberg, Isa N., author. | Wynn, Dianna, author.
Title: Working in groups: communication principles and strategies / Isa N.
Engleberg, Prince George’s Community College, Dianna R. Wynn, Nash
Community College.
Description: Seventh edition. | Boston : Pearson Education, Inc., [2017] |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016009869| ISBN 9780134415529 | ISBN 0134415523
Subjects: LCSH: Group relations training. | Small groups. | Communication in
small groups.
Classification: LCC HM1086 .E53 2017 | DDC 302/.14–dc23 LC record available at
https://lccn.loc.gov/2016009869
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Books A La Carte:
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-441552-9
ISBN-10:
0-13-441552-3
Brief Contents
1 Introduction to Group Communication 
1
2 Group Development 
19
3 Group Member Participation 
36
4 Diversity in Groups 
53
5 Group Leadership 
77
6 Verbal and Nonverbal Communication in Groups 
99
7 Listening and Responding in Groups 
119
8 Conflict and Cohesion in Groups 
136
9 Decision Making and Problem Solving in Groups 
155
10 Critical Thinking and Argumentation in Groups 
178
11 Planning and Conducting Meetings 
195
12 Group Presentations 
215
v
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Contents
Preface 
About the Authors 
1 Introduction to Group
xiii
xvii
Theory in Groups: Collective Intelligence
2.1.5:
Adjourning Stage
24
24
Virtual Teams: Developmental Tasks
25
Communication
1
2.2: Group Goals
2.2.1: Establishing Group Goals
26
26
Case Study: The Study Group Dilemma
2
Theory in Groups: Goal Theory and Group Work
27
1.1:
The Importance of Groups
2
Group Assessment: Group Communication
Competencies Survey
3
1.2: Defining Group Communication
1.2.1: Key Elements of Group Communication
4
4
Theory in Groups: Systems Theory
6
1.2.2:
Types of Groups
Virtual Teams: Groups in Cyberspace
6
2.2.2:
Balancing Group Goals and Hidden Agendas
27
Group Assessment: How Good Is Your Goal?
28
2.3: Group Norms
2.3.1: Types of Norms
28
29
GroupWork: Classroom Norms
29
2.3.2:
2.3.3:
Categories of Norms
Conformity
30
30
7
Ethics in Groups: Beware of Unreasonable Norms
Advantages and Disadvantages of Working
in Groups
8
Groups in Balance . . . Change Norms as Needed
31
GroupWork: It Was the Best of Teams, It Was the Worst
of Teams
9
2.4: Group Motivation
2.4.1: A Sense of Meaningfulness
2.4.2: A Sense of Choice
2.4.3: A Sense of Competence
2.4.4: A Sense of Progress
33
33
33
34
34
Summary: Group Development
34
1.3:
1.3.1:
Advantages of Working in Groups
Groups in Balance . . . Create Synergy
1.3.2:
2.3.4:
9
10
Disadvantages of Working in Groups
10
1.4: The Nature of Group Communication
1.4.1: Theories, Strategies, and Skills
1.4.2: The Group Communication Process
11
11
12
1.5:
Balance as the Guiding Principle
of Group Work
1.5.1: Groups in Balance
1.5.2: Balancing Group Dialectics
12
12
13
Theory in Groups: Relational Dialectics Theory
13
Groups in Balance . . . Enjoy Working Together
15
1.6: Ethical Group Communication
1.6.1: Ethics in Balance
1.6.2: Credo for Ethical Communication
15
16
16
Ethics in Groups: The National Communication
Association Credo for Ethical Communication
16
GroupWork: The Ethics Credo in Action
17
Summary: Introduction to Group Communication
2 Group Development
18
19
Case Study: Nice to Meet You, Too
19
2.1: Group Development Stages
2.1.1: Forming Stage
20
21
Groups in Balance . . . Socialize Newcomers
21
2.1.2:
2.1.3:
2.1.4:
Storming Stage
Norming Stage
Performing Stage
22
23
24
Nonconformity
3 Group Member Participation
30
31
36
Case Study: Taming Tony the Tiger
36
3.1: Group Member Needs
3.1.1: Schutz’s Theory of Interpersonal Needs
37
37
GroupWork: Group Attraction Survey
39
3.1.2:
Balancing Individual Needs and Group
Needs
3.2: Member Roles
3.2.1: Group Task Roles
3.2.2: Group Social Maintenance Roles
Theory in Groups: Belbin’s Team-Role Theory
3.2.3:
Disruptive Behaviors
3.3: Member Confidence
3.3.1: Communication Apprehension
3.3.2: Strategies for Reducing Communication
Apprehension
40
40
40
41
42
43
44
44
45
Group Assessment: Personal Report of Communication
Apprehension (PRCA-24)
46
Virtual Teams: Confidence with Technology
47
3.3.3:
3.4:
Strategies for Helping Apprehensive Members
48
Member Assertiveness
48
Group Assessment: Assertiveness Scale
49
3.4.1:
Balancing Passivity and Aggression
49
vii
viii Contents
Groups in Balance . . . Know When and How
to Say No
3.4.2:
Assertiveness Skills
Ethics in Groups: Managing Manipulators
Summary: Group Member Participation
4 Diversity in Groups
50
77
51
5.1:
78
51
Groups in Balance . . . Value Both Leadership
and Followership
79
5.2: Becoming a Leader
5.2.1: Designated Leaders
5.2.2: Emergent Leaders
5.2.3: Strategies for Becoming a Leader
80
80
80
81
Group Assessment: Are You Ready to Lead?
82
5.3: Leadership and Power
5.3.1: Types of Power
5.3.2: The Power of Power
82
83
83
Ethics in Groups: Leadership Integrity
84
5.4: Leadership Theories
5.4.1: Trait Leadership Theory
5.4.2: Styles Leadership Theory
84
85
85
Groups in Balance . . . Cultivate the Two Sides
of “Great” Leadership
86
53
54
4.1: The Value of Group Diversity
4.1.1: Culture and Diversity
4.1.2: Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Groups
54
55
55
Groups in Balance . . . Seek Intellectual Diversity
56
4.2: Obstacles to Understanding Others
4.2.1: Ethnocentrism
4.2.2: Stereotyping
4.2.3: Prejudice
4.2.4: Discrimination
56
56
57
57
57
4.3: Personality Dimensions
4.3.1: The Big Five Personality Traits
4.3.2: The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator®
58
58
58
4.3.3:
Motivating Personality Types
in Groups
77
Case Study: The Leader in Sheep’s Clothing
50
Case Study: Diversity Dilemma
Groups in Balance . . . Value Both Introverts
and Extroverts
5 Group Leadership
59
61
What Is Leadership?
5.4.3:
Situational Leadership Theory
86
GroupWork: The Least-Preferred-Coworker Scale
88
Theory in Groups: An Abundance of
Leadership Theories
90
GroupWork: Personality Types in Groups
61
4.4: Cultural Dimensions
4.4.1: Individualism–Collectivism
4.4.2: Power Distance
4.4.3: Gender Expectations
4.4.4: Time Orientations
4.4.5: High Context–Low Context
62
62
63
65
65
66
5.5: The 5M Model of Leadership Effectiveness
5.5.1: Model Leadership Behavior
5.5.2: Motivate Members
5.5.3: Manage Group Process
5.5.4: Make Decisions
5.5.5: Mentor Members
5.5.6: Balancing the 5 Ms of Leadership
Effectiveness
Virtual Teams: Cultural Dimensions and
Communication Technology
66
Virtual Teams: Sharing Virtual Leadership
Functions
94
Group Assessment: Cultural Context Inventory
67
4.5: Gender Dimensions
4.5.1: Collective Intelligence
4.5.2: Amount of Talk
68
68
68
5.6: Diversity and Leadership
5.6.1: Gender and Leadership
5.6.2: Leading Multicultural Groups
94
94
96
Theory in Groups: Muted Group Theory
69
4.6: Generational Dimensions
4.6.1: Four Generational Dimensions
4.6.2: Ensuring Successful Intergenerational
Interactions
69
70
6 Verbal and Nonverbal
70
Case Study: How to Sink the Mayflower
100
4.7:
71
6.1:
100
Group Assessment: Religious Knowledge Survey
72
4.8: Adapting to Diversity
4.8.1: Be Mindful
4.8.2: Adapt to Others
4.8.3: Actively Engage Others
73
73
73
73
6.2: Team Talk
6.2.1: The Dimensions of Team Talk
101
101
Group Assessment: Auditing Team Talk
102
Ethics in Groups: Practice the Platinum Rule
73
Summary: Diversity in Groups
74
Religious Dimensions
Summary: Group Leadership
Communication in Groups
Two Essential Tools
6.2.2:
Use I, You, and We Language
Appropriately
6.3: Language Challenges
6.3.1: Abstract Words
90
91
91
92
92
92
93
97
99
103
103
103
Contents
Bypassing
Exclusionary Language
Jargon
104
104
104
Ethics in Groups: Sticks and Stones May
Break Your Bones, but Words Can Hurt Forever
105
6.4: Language Differences
6.4.1: Language and Gender
6.4.2: Language and Culture
106
106
106
Theory in Groups: The Whorf Hypothesis
107
6.5:
108
6.3.2:
6.3.3:
6.3.4:
Nonverbal Communication
Groups in Balance . . . Speak “Silently”
6.5.1:
6.5.2:
6.5.3:
6.5.4:
Personal Appearance
Facial Expression and Eye Contact
Vocal Expression
Physical Expression
108
108
108
109
109
Virtual Teams: Expressing Emotions Online
110
6.6: The Nonverbal Environment
6.6.1: Arrangement of Space
6.6.2: Perceptions of Personal Space
111
111
112
6.7: Nonverbal Differences
6.7.1: Nonverbal Communication and Gender
6.7.2: Nonverbal Communication and Culture
113
114
114
GroupWork: What is Nonverbally Normal?
114
6.8:
Creating a Supportive
Communication Climate
6.8.1: Defensive and Supportive Behaviors
6.8.2: Immediacy in Groups
GroupWork: How Immediate Are You?
Summary: Verbal and Nonverbal Communication
in Groups
7 Listening and Responding
in Groups
115
115
116
ix
7.3: Key Listening Strategies and Skills
7.3.1: Use Your Extra Thought Speed
7.3.2: Apply the Golden Listening Rule
7.3.3: “Listen” to Nonverbal Behavior
7.3.4: Minimize Distractions
7.3.5: Listen Before You Leap
7.3.6: Take Relevant Notes
129
129
129
130
130
130
130
Virtual Teams: Listening Online
131
7.4: Listening to Differences
7.4.1: Gender Differences
7.4.2: Personality Differences
7.4.3: Cultural Differences
132
133
133
133
Groups in Balance . . . Learn the Art of
High-Context Listening
133
Hearing Ability Differences
133
Ethics in Groups: Self-Centered Listening
Sabotages Success
7.4.4:
134
Summary: Listening and Responding in Groups
135
8 Conflict and Cohesion in Groups
136
Case Study: Sociology in Trouble
137
8.1: Conflict in Groups
8.1.1: Task Conflict
8.1.2: Personal Conflict
8.1.3: Procedural Conflict
137
138
138
138
8.2:
Constructive and Destructive Conflict
139
GroupWork: Conflict Awareness Log
139
Virtual Teams: Conflict in Cyberspace
140
117
8.3: Conflict Styles
8.3.1: Avoiding Conflict Style
8.3.2: Accommodating Conflict Style
141
141
141
119
Groups in Balance . . . Know How to Apologize
and When to Forgive
142
117
Case Study: That’s Not What I Said
119
7.1: The Challenge of Listening in Groups
7.1.1: The Nature of Listening
7.1.2: The Need for Better Listening
120
121
121
Group Assessment: Student Listening Inventory
122
Competing Conflict Style
Compromising Conflict Style
Collaborating Conflict Style
Choosing a Conflict Style
142
143
143
143
Group Assessment: How Do You Respond
to Conflict?
144
124
8.4: Conflict Management Strategies
8.4.1: The 4Rs Method
145
145
Listening to Hear
Listening to Understand
125
125
Theory in Groups: Attribution Theory
and Member Motives
146
Groups in Balance . . . Ask Questions to Enhance
Comprehension
126
7.1.3:
7.2:
The Habits of Listeners
The Listening Process
Theory in Groups: The HURIER Listening Model
7.2.1:
7.2.2:
7.2.3:
7.2.4:
7.2.5:
7.2.6:
Listening to Remember
Listening to Interpret
Listening to Evaluate
Listening to Respond
GroupWork: Practice Paraphrasing
123
124
126
126
127
127
128
8.3.3:
8.3.4:
8.3.5:
8.3.6:
8.4.2:
8.4.3:
8.4.4:
The A-E-I-O-U Model
Cooperative Negotiation
Anger Management
147
147
147
Ethics in Groups: The Group and the Doctrine
of the Mean
148
8.5: Conflict and Member Diversity
8.5.1: Cultural Responses to Conflict
149
149
x Contents
Groups in Balance . . . Let Members Save Face
8.5.2:
Gender Responses to Conflict
8.6: Group Cohesion
8.6.1: Enhancing Group Cohesion
8.6.2: Groupthink
Summary: Conflict and Cohesion in Groups
9 Decision Making and Problem
Solving in Groups
Case Study: No More Horsing Around
Understanding Group Decision Making
and Problem Solving
9.1.1: Clear Goal
149
Theory in Groups: Argumentative Communication
181
150
10.1.2: Deliberative Group Argumentation
181
150
150
151
153
155
156
9.1:
156
157
Group Assessment: Argumentativeness Scale
182
10.2: Understanding Arguments
10.2.1: Claim, Evidence, and Warrant
10.2.2: Backing, Reservation, and Qualifier
183
184
184
GroupWork: Analyze the Argument
185
10.3: Supporting Arguments
186
Groups in Balance . . . Document Sources of Evidence
10.3.1: Types of Evidence
10.3.2: Tests of Evidence
186
186
187
Virtual Teams: Think Critically about the Internet
187
10.4: Presenting Arguments
10.4.1: State Your Claim
188
188
159
159
159
159
GroupWork: Clarify Your Claims
188
10.4.2: Support Your Claim
10.4.3: Provide Reasons
10.4.4: Summarize Your Argument
189
189
189
9.2: Group Decision Making
9.2.1: Decision-Making Methods
160
160
Groups in Balance . . . Avoid False Consensus
161
10.5: Refuting Arguments
10.5.1: Listen to the Argument
10.5.2: State the Opposing Claim
10.5.3: Preview Your Objections
10.5.4: Assess the Evidence
10.5.5: Assess the Reasoning
10.5.6: Summarize Your Refutation
189
189
190
190
190
190
190
10.6: Adapting to Argumentation Styles
10.6.1: Gender Differences in Argumentation
10.6.2: Cultural Differences in Argumentation
10.6.3: Argumentation and
Emotional Intelligence
191
191
191
Ethics in Groups: Ethical Argumentation
192
Theory in Groups: Asking Single and Subordinate Questions
9.1.2:
9.1.3:
9.1.4:
9.1.5:
9.2.2:
Quality Content
Structured Procedures
Commitment to Deliberation
Collaborative Communication Climate
157
Decision-Making Styles
161
GroupWork: What Is Your Decision-Making Style?
162
9.3: Group Problem Solving
9.3.1: Brainstorming
9.3.2: Nominal Group Technique (NGT)
9.3.3: Decreasing Options Technique (DOT)
9.3.4: The Progressive Problem-Solving Method
163
164
165
166
168
Groups in Balance . . . Avoid Analysis Paralysis
169
Virtual Teams: Mediated Decision Making
and Problem Solving
170
9.4: Creativity and Problem Solving
9.4.1: Creative Thinking
9.4.2: Enhancing Group Creativity
172
172
172
Ethics in Groups: The Morality of Creative
Outcomes
173
9.5: Problem-Solving Realities
9.5.1: Politics
9.5.2: Preexisting Preferences
9.5.3: Power
9.5.4: Organizational Culture
173
173
174
174
174
Group Assessment: Problem-Solving Competencies in Groups 175
Summary: Decision Making and Problem Solving
in Groups
10 Critical Thinking and
Argumentation in Groups
176
178
Case Study: Slicing the Pie
178
10.1: The Nature of Critical Thinking and
Argumentation
10.1.1: The Value of Argumentation in Groups
179
180
Summary: Critical Thinking and Argumentation
in Groups
11 Planning and Conducting
Meetings
192
193
195
Case Study: Monday Morning Blues
196
11.1: Meetings, Meetings, Meetings
11.1.1: What Is a Meeting?
196
197
GroupWork: It Was the Best of Meetings; It Was the
Worst of Meetings
197
11.1.2: Why Do Meetings Fail?
198
11.2: Planning and Chairing Meetings
198
Theory in Groups: Chaos and Complexity Theories
199
11.2.1: Questions About Meetings
11.2.2: Preparing the Agenda
199
201
Groups in Balance . . . Avoid Meetingthink
202
11.2.3: Chairing the Meeting
11.2.4: Preparing the Minutes
203
204
Ethics in Groups: Use Good Judgment
When Taking Minutes
205
Contents
11.3: Managing Members in Meetings
11.3.1: Adapting to Problematic Behaviors
11.3.2: Adapting to Member Differences
205
205
207
Virtual Teams: Meeting in Cyberspace
207
11.4: Parliamentary Procedure
11.4.1: Who Uses Parliamentary Procedure?
11.4.2: The Guiding Principles of Parliamentary
Procedure
11.4.3: The Parliamentary Players
11.4.4: Making a Motion
11.4.5: Making a Main Motion
208
209
11.5: Evaluating the Meeting
213
Group Assessment: Post-Meeting Reaction (PMR) Form
213
Summary: Planning and Conducting Meetings
209
210
211
212
214
12.2.4: Logistics
12.2.5: Content
12.2.6: Organization
12.2.7: Delivery
xi
219
220
220
221
Virtual Teams: Mediated Presentations
222
12.3: Group Presentations
12.3.1: Public Group Presentations
12.3.2: Team Presentations
223
223
224
Groups in Balance . . . Welcome and Encourage Questions
225
Group Assessment: Team Presentation Evaluation
227
12.4: Presentation Aids
12.4.1: Presentation Slides
227
228
Ethics in Groups: Respect Copyrights
229
12.4.2: Delivering Presentation Aids
230
Groups in Balance . . . Know When to Break
the “Slide” Rules
230
GroupWork: Re-envision the Visual
232
12 Group Presentations
215
Case Study: Team Challenge
215
12.1: Presentations in and by Groups
216
12.2: Presentation Guidelines
12.2.1: Purpose
12.2.2: Audience
12.2.3: Credibility
217
217
218
219
Glossary
234
Notes
245
Credits
274
Theory in Groups: Aristotle’s Ethos
219
Index
276
Summary: Group Presentations
232
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Preface
O
ne central question has always guided our research and writing for Working in Groups:
What do college students enrolled in a group communi-
cation course really need to know?
Our guiding question led us to include both classic
and current theories of group communication that focus
on “how groups work” as well as practical group communication strategies and skills that emphasize “how to work
in groups.”
Comprehensive Topic
Coverage
The Seventh Edition of Working in Groups strengthens the
text’s scholarship and applicability. Review the detailed
table of contents to get a feel for the depth and breadth of
topic coverage. We include classic and traditional group
communication subject matter, such as
• Group Development
• Member Diversity
Unified Perspective:
Balance and Group
Dialectics
Beginning with the first edition of Working in Groups, we
have used the concept of balance as a central metaphor
for learning how to work in groups. A group that reaches
a decision or completes a task is not in balance if group
members dislike or mistrust one another. A group that relies on two or three members to do all the work is not in
balance. Effective groups balance factors such as task and
social maintenance functions, individual and group needs,
and leadership and followership.
We further developed the balance metaphor into a
unique model of group dialectics—the interplay of opposing or contradictory forces inherent in group work. A
dialectic approach examines how group members negotiate and resolve the tensions and pressures they encounter
while working together to achieve a common goal. We apply contemporary theories and research to illuminate the
nine group dialectics that characterize the delicate balance
achieved by effective groups.
Group Dialectics
Individual Goals
Conflict
Conforming
Task Dimensions
Homogeneous
n Group Goals
n Cohesion
n Nonconforming
n Social Dimensions
n Heterogeneous
• Verbal and Nonverbal Communication
• Decision Making and Problem Solving
• Group Norms and Roles
• Leadership Theories and Power
• Group Cohesiveness and Conflict
• Planning and Conducting Meetings
We also include cutting-edge theories, research, and
communication strategies, such as
• Group Dialectics and Balance
• “Team Talk” Strategies and Skills
• Communication Apprehension in Groups
• Communication Ethics in Groups
• Group Goal Setting and Motivation
• Adapting to Group Diversity
• Group Deliberation
• Virtual Teams
• Argumentation in Groups
• Brownell’s HURIER Listening Model
• Personality Traits in Groups
• Decision-Making Styles
• 5M Model of Effective Leadership
• The Collective Intelligence of Groups
Pedagogical Features
The pedagogical features of this Seventh Edition that link
the theories of group communication (how groups work)
with related communication strategies and skills (how to
work in groups) include the following:
Leadership
n Followership
Structure
n Spontaneity
Case Studies
Engaged
n Disengaged
Provided at the beginning of every chapter, original case
studies and accompanying questions enable students to
Open System
n Closed System
xiii
xiv Preface
anticipate, discuss, and apply chapter content. The case
study questions do not offer a single or correct answer;
rather, they ask students to apply what they learn in the
chapter and to explore what they believe are appropriate
responses to the case study questions.
Video Scenarios
Incorporated into the first 11 chapters, video scenarios
highlight important group communication theories, strategies, and skills. Instructors can use these videos to supplement classroom lectures and discussions, as the basis for
exam questions, or as cases for analysis.
Groups in Balance
The Groups in Balance feature calls attention to group dialectics and the need to balance the contradictory forces inherent in all group work. The feature also examines the ways
in which groups negotiate and resolve a variety of tensions
using a both/and a­ pproach. Many of the Groups in Balance
features are new or revised for the Seventh Edition.
Theory in Groups
Throughout this edition, we use the Theory in Groups feature to explain why groups succeed or fail and how related
strategies and skills in this book can enhance group effectiveness. Many of the theories in the Seventh Edition are
revised or new to the text.
Ethics in Groups
Every chapter includes an Ethics in Groups feature that
examines the many ethical issues and dilemmas that frequently arise when interdependent group members collaborate with one another to achieve a common goal.
Virtual Teams
In each chapter, the Virtual Teams feature offers strategies
and skills to help groups and members achieve common
goals both in mediated face-to-face settings and in virtual
teams that communicate across time, distance, and organizational boundaries.
GroupWork
GroupWork features in each chapter demonstrate and
apply group communication principles in structured individual and/or interactive activities. This feature offers
personal insights and opportunities for critically thinking about the ways in which related theories, strategies,
and skills affect how and why group members collaborate with one another to achieve a ­common goal.
Group Assessment
Group Assessment features provide new and revised
measures for evaluating student and group understanding
of important theories, strategies, and skills.
End-of-Chapter Summary and
Quiz Questions
Chapter Summary Sections review the major concepts in
each chapter. Students should be able to explain and apply
summary statements to a variety of group situations and
contexts.
End-of-chapter Quiz Questions link to chapter learning outcomes and give students the opportunity to assess
their understanding, application, analysis, and evaluation
of chapter content.
New to this Edition
The Seventh Edition of Working in Groups includes up-todate research and expanded coverage of contemporary
topics that build on our tradition of intellectual rigor, practical focus, and commitment to student learning.
• Updated, contemporary approaches to traditional topics such as group roles, listening, leadership, conflict
resolution, and problem solving
• Expanded and updated sections on virtual teams and
communication technology in every chapter, with an
emphasis on applying group theory, strategies, and
skills to working in virtual teams
• Greater focus on collaboration and deliberation as
vital components of group effectiveness
• Expanded topic coverage focusing on successfully
resolving conflict, avoiding groupthink, managing
problematic group members, preparing for team presentations, and using parliamentary procedure
• Updated sections on adapting to group diversity incorporated throughout most chapters, with contemporary
research on gender and intercultural communication
• New Theories, Research, and Practical Applications:
Collective Intelligence; Gender and Leadership; Cultural Synergy; Cosmopolitanism and Ethics; The 4Rs
of Conflict Management; Group Deliberation and
Decision Making; The Progressive Problem-Solving
Method; Organizational Culture and Problem Solving;
Deliberative Argumentation; A Parliamentary Procedure Primer
• Excerpts from text-specific video scenarios applicable to specific sections of chapters followed by
related questions for group discussion or writing assignments
Preface
• Revised learning objectives for every chapter and
linked to specific chapter content, as well as the endof-chapter summary and quiz questions
REVEL™
Educational technology designed for the way today’s students read, think, and learn.
When students are engaged deeply, they learn more
effectively and perform better in their courses. This simple
fact inspired the creation of REVEL: an immersive learning experience designed for the way today’s students read,
think, and learn. Built in collaboration with educators and
students nationwide, REVEL is the newest, fully digital
way to deliver respected Pearson content.
REVEL enlivens course content with media interactives and assessments—integrated directly within the authors’ narrative—that provide opportunities for students
to read about and practice course material in tandem. This
immersive educational technology boosts student engagement, which leads to better understanding of concepts and
improved performance throughout the course.
Learn more about REVEL – http://www.pearsonhighered.
com/revel
Available Instructor Resources
The following instructor resources can be accessed in the
left hand navigation of Revel under “Resources” or by visiting http://www.pearsonhighered.com/irc
• Instructor Manual: includes chapter summary, learning objectives, handouts and additional resources.
• Test Bank: includes additional questions beyond the
REVEL in multiple choice and essay response—­formats.
• PowerPoint Presentation: provides a core template of
the content covered throughout the text. Can easily be
added to customize for your classroom.
• MyTest: Create custom quizzes and exams using the Test
Bank questions. You can print these exams for ­in-class
use. Visit: http://www.pearsonhighered.com/mytest
xv
Acknowledgments
Although the title page of Working in Groups features
our names, this project exemplifies the value of collaborating with our talented and creative publishing team.
We are particularly grateful to the group of content editors, copy editors, production editors, graphic designers, photo editors, behind-the-scenes technicians, and
what we describe as our “online transformers” who literally transformed a traditional manuscript into a digital text.
We extend very special thanks to Carly Czech, who
became our sounding board, quality-assurance expert, and
go-to fixer in the production process.
We also extend our gratitude to the Working in Groups
Development Team including Karen Trost, our resourceful, supportive, and insightful Development Editor,
whose professionalism, innovative ideas, and kindness
made all the difference. Rashida Patel, our Instructional
Designer, for demonstrating the versatility of digital media in transforming flat, linear content into new learning tools that individual and groups of students can ask,
answer, interact with, and learn from interactive activities. Marla Sussman, our Assessment Writing Supervisor,
taught us more about writing, analyzing, and maximizing quiz questions than we have learned from anyone
else in many years of creating tests and exams. Manas
Roy, our Digital Publishing Project Manager, demonstrated a perfect combination of the expertise, efficiency,
patience, and diplomacy needed to transform our text
into digital form.
In addition to our publishing team, we enjoyed,
learned a great deal from, and made needed changes based
on the advice of our conscientious reviewers, whose excellent suggestions and comments enriched every edition of
Working in Groups.
We are particularly indebted to the students and
faculty members who have shared their opinions and
provided valuable suggestions and insights about
our teaching and our text. They are the measure of all
things.
Isa Engleberg and Dianna Wynn
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About the Authors
Isa Engleberg, professor emerita at Prince George’s Community College in Maryland, is a past president of the
National Communication Association. In addition to writing seven college textbooks in communication studies and
publishing more than three dozen articles in academic
journals, she earned the Outstanding Community College
Educator Award from the National Communication Association and the President’s Medal from Prince George’s
Community College for outstanding teaching, scholarship,
and service. Her professional career spans appointments at
all levels of higher education as well as teaching abroad.
Dianna Wynn is an adjunct professor at Nash Community College in North Carolina. Previously, she taught at
Midland College in Texas and Prince George’s Community College in Maryland, where students chose her as the
Outstanding Teacher of the Year. She has co-authored three
communication textbooks and written articles in academic
journals. In addition to teaching, she has many years of experience as a communication and trial consultant, assisting
attorneys in developing effective courtroom communication strategies.
xvii
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Working in Groups
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Chapter 1
Introduction to Group
Communication
Like most successful groups, formation skydiving requires the collaboration of three or more interdependent
members working to achieve a common goal.
Learning Objectives
1.1
1.2
1.3
Explain why employers consistently
rank teamwork and the ability to
collaborate with others as essential
skills
Explain the importance of the five key
elements in the definition of group
communication
Compare the advantages and disadvantages
of working in groups
1.4
Describe how understanding the
components of the group communication
process can enhance group effectiveness
1.5
Explain how successful groups balance
various dialectic tensions by using a
collaborative both/and approach
1.6
Practice the ethical principles included in
the National Communication Association’s
Credo for Ethical Communication
1
2 Chapter 1
Case Study: The Study Group
Dilemma
Grace has always wanted to be a pediatric nurse. When she
was accepted into the nursing program at a local college,
she looked forward to studying for her dream job. However, her first day in Anatomy and Physiology class turned
her hopes into fears. Her professor explained that every
student must learn and understand the significance of
more than 15,000 terms! As she looked around the classroom, she could see that many of the other new nursing
majors seemed just as stunned as she was.
After class was over, she walked down the hallway
with four classmates. The mood was gloomy. After an
uncomfortable period of silence, one of the other students
suggested that they form a study group. Grace had her
doubts. She thought, “A study group will just take up a lot
of my time and energy with no guarantee that it will help
me earn a good grade. As much as I’d like to get to know
these students better, I can probably learn more by studying alone. Besides, what if we don’t get along? What if I end
up doing most of the work or the others don’t show up?”
Grace’s concerns—like those of many people—are understandable. Groups use a lot of time, energy, and resources. In
some cases, a single person can accomplish just as much or
more by working alone. And even if a study group has the
potential to aid learning, it also has the potential for interpersonal conflicts and long-lasting resentments.
Critical Thinking Questions
After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the
following critical thinking questions:
1. Given Grace’s concerns about spending a lot of her valuable
time and energy in a study group, what would you say to
encourage her to join?
2. What communication strategies should a study group use to
ensure that members are satisfied with the group
experience?
3. Which dialectic tensions are most likely to affect how well
Grace and her study group achieves its goal?
4. Is it ethical for a study group to work together in order to
improve their chances of earning a good grade when other
students in the same class study alone? If yes, why? If not,
why not?
1.1: The Importance
of Groups
1.1
Explain why employers consistently rank
teamwork and the ability to collaborate with
others as essential skills
All of us work in groups—at school, on the job, in voluntary organizations, and in interactive leisure activities.
Depending on the situation, group members can be family
members, friends, colleagues, and new acquaintances.
Meeting locations range from sports fields and battlefields
to courtrooms and classrooms, and even from cyberspace
to outer space.
Individual performance was once the measure of personal achievement, but success in today’s complex world
depends on your ability to work in groups. Researchers
Steve Kozlowski and Daniel Ilgen describe our profound
dependence on groups:
Teams of people working together for a common cause
touch all of our lives. From everyday activities like air
travel, fire fighting, and running the United Way drive to
amazing feats of human accomplishments like climbing
Mt. Everest and reaching for the stars, teams are at the
center of how work gets done in modern times.1
Working in groups may be the most important skill
you learn in college. A study commissioned by the Association of American Colleges and Universities (AAC&U)
asked employers to rank essential learning outcomes
needed by college graduates entering the workplace. In
two of four major categories (“Intellectual and Practical
Skills” and “Personal and Social Responsibility”), the
top-ranked outcome was “teamwork skills and the ability to collaborate with others in diverse group settings.”
Recent graduates ranked the same learning outcomes as
top priorities.2 A business executive in the same study
wrote that they look for employees who “are good team
people over anything else. I can teach the technical.”3 In
another major study, employers identified group-related
communication skills as more important than written
communication, proficiency in the field of study, and
computer skills.4
Introduction to Group Communication
3
Group Assessment Group Communication Competencies Survey5
What are the critical group communication skills identified by employers? Fortunately, there are many research-based competencies that characterize effective
group member behavior. As a way of introducing you to the theories, strategies, and skills in this text, assess the importance of each of the competencies
presented in the Group Communication Competencies Survey.
Directions: On a 5-point scale, where 5 is “Extremely Important” and 1 is “Not at All Important,” rate the following group competencies in terms of their importance
for becoming an effective group member. Select only one number for each item. When you are finished, ask yourself this question: How competent am I in the
“Extremely Important” areas?
Group Competencies
1. Reduce your nervousness when speaking in a discussion or meeting.
2. Understand, respect, and adapt to diverse group members.
3. Communicate openly and honestly.
4. Assume critical task roles (ask questions and analyze ideas) and social
maintenance roles (motivate and support members).
5. Influence group members to change their attitudes and/or behavior.
6. Correctly interpret and appropriately respond to members’ feelings.
7. Develop clear group goals.
8. Listen appropriately and effectively to other members.
9. Intervene appropriately to resolve member and group problems.
10. Develop positive interpersonal relationships with group members.
11. Manage and resolve interpersonal conflicts.
12. Develop and follow a well-organized meeting agenda.
13. Actively contribute to group discussions.
14. Use gestures, body language, facial expressions, and eye contact effectively.
15. Demonstrate effective leadership skills.
16. Research and share important ideas and information with group members.
17. Use presentation aids and presentation software (PowerPoint) effectively.
18. Plan and conduct effective meetings.
19. Use appropriate procedures for group decision making and problem solving.
20. Ask questions to clarify ideas and get needed information.
21. Motivate group members.
22. Use assertiveness strategies and skills confidently and effectively.
23. Respect and adapt to group norms (standards of behavior).
24. Promote equal participation in discussions by all members.
25. Prepare and deliver an effective presentation or oral report.
26. Use appropriate and effective words in a group discussion.
27. Use effective technologies and skills to communicate in virtual teams.
28. Develop and present valid arguments and opinions in a group discussion.
29. Provide appropriate emotional support to group members.
30. Other strategies or skills:
a.
b.
c.
5
Extremely
Important
4
Very
Important
3
Somewhat
Important
2
Not Very
Important
1
Not at All
Important
4 Chapter 1
Explain the importance of the five key elements in
the definition of group communication
When does a collection of people become a group? Do
people talking in an elevator or discussing the weather at
an airport constitute a group? Are the members of a church
congregation listening to a sermon or fans cheering at a
baseball game a group? Although the people in these
examples are groups, they are not necessarily working for
or with other members.
There are two basic uses of the word group. The first
describes people brought together by a circumstance, such
as a group of fans at a sporting event or concert, a group of
people waiting in line for a bus or at airport check-in, or a
group assembled at a political rally or a wedding. The second use of the word identifies a group as people who
interact with one another to accomplish something.
(Table 1.1) In this textbook, we concentrate on the second
meaning in which group members are highly focused and
dependent on communication. We define group communication as the collaboration of three or more interdependent members working to achieve a common goal.
Table 1.1 Shared Goals OR Shared Circumstances
Classification
People who work with their neighbors to pick up trash on Earth Day
People who interact with one another
to accomplish a shared goal
People discussing the weather at
an airport
People brought together by a shared
circumstance
People who are members of a church
congregation listening to a sermon
People brought together by a
shared circumstance
People who get together to choose
a scholarship winner from among
high school honors students
People who interact with one
another to accomplish a shared
goal
People who get together to watch
a Presidential candidates’ debate
on television
People brought together by a
shared circumstance
Now, let’s break down our definition into the five essential
components of group communication shown in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1 Components of Group Communication
rs
be
em
M
Go
a
Group
Communication
tion
Although people frequently assemble in a variety of
circumstances and settings, group members who actively
collaborate with one another to achieve a shared goal have
the most influence and impact on their own lives and the
lives of others. When describing group communication, we
use the terms group and team interchangeably. Thus, a group
of friends organizing an annual block party can be just as
diligent and productive as a corporate team organizing and
conducting a stockholders’ meeting. Although we don’t call
a football team a football group or family members a team
(unless they’re playing a sport or game together), we can
The Green Bay Packers have won more championships than any
other team in National Football League history. How do the Packers
exemplify the definition of group communication: the collaboration
of three or more interdependent members working to achieve a
common goal?
ra
abo
Coll
Examples
1.2.1: Key Elements of Group
Communication
ls
king
1.2
safely say that all of these people are working together in
order to achieve a common goal.
Wor
1.2: Defining Group
Communication
Interdependence
The saying “Two’s company, three’s a crowd” recognizes that a conversation
between two people is fundamentally different from a threeperson discussion. If two people engage in a conversation,
Jill communicates with Jack and Jack communicates with Jill.
Three or More Members
Introduction to Group Communication
But if a third person is added, the dynamics change: A third
person can be the listener who judges and influences the content and style of the conversation. While two group members
talk, support, or criticize one another, a third person can offer
alternatives and make a tie-breaking decision if the other two
people can’t agree. We do not identify two people as a group
because researchers note that two people working together
perform at about the same level as the same two people
working alone.6
As the size of a group increases, the number of possible interactions (and potential misunderstandings)
increases exponentially. For example, a group with five
members has the potential for 90 different interactions; if
you add just two members, a group of seven has the potential for 966 different interactions.7
At this point, you may wonder whether there is an
ideal group size.
The answer is: It depends. It depends on members’
knowledge, attitudes, and skills; on the nature and needs
of the task; and—most importantly—on the group’s common goal. Fortunately, researchers have looked at the
group-size question and given us some useful guidelines:
• Most group members and leaders prefer groups of
three to nine members.
• Groups larger than nine members are generally less
productive.8
• Groups of five to seven members are generally more
effective for problem-solving discussions.
• To avoid tied votes, an odd number of members is usually better than an even number.
Smaller groups are generally more effective than larger
groups. As group size increases, cohesion and effective collaboration decreases, and members tend to divide into subgroups. In large groups, members are more argumentative,
less unified, and more competitive than cooperative. Some
members may feel left out or inconsequential, and as a
result, member satisfaction decreases as group size
increases.9 The best advice is the simplest: limit “group
size to the smallest number of members necessary to
accomplish group goals.”10
Many organizations have learned the importance of
creating groups in a size most likely to achieve specific
goals. For example, successful megachurches in the United
States may have thousands of members in their congregations, but small groups are often the key to their success.
Church members are encouraged to create or join tightly
knit groups of five to seven people who meet in a member’s home to pray and support one another in times of
need. Worshipers match their interests with those of other
group members—new parents, retired accountants, moun-
5
tain bike riders—and use their commonalities as the basis
for religious discussions, member support, and volunteer
projects. Thus, although successful megachurches boast
large congregations that share a common belief system,
they rely on the motivation, comfort, and work of small
groups to sustain religious faith and church membership.11
WRITING PROMPT
Key Elements of Group Communication
Think about the task groups in which you’ve been a member. Choose
one or two examples and explain how the size of the group and the
nature of the task affected its ability to achieve a common goal.
The response entered here will appear in the
performance dashboard and can be viewed by
your instructor.
Submit
Collaboration Collaboration is a fairly common word
that encompasses such behaviors as coordination, cooperation, interaction, and teamwork. In groups, collaboration is
characterized by coordinated group interaction in which
members share a common goal, respect others’ perspectives
and contributions, and work together to create a successful
group experience.
Effective collaboration ensures that members share
relevant information and opinions, make responsible decisions, and develop positive interpersonal relationships.
The way in which group members communicate does
more than reveal group dynamics; it creates them.12 Members learn which behaviors are appropriate, and which are
inappropriate. Whether members meet face to face or in
cyberspace, effective group communication requires collaboration.
Interdependence  Interdependence refers to the influ-
ence of each group member on the thoughts and actions of
other members. A successful group with interdependent
members functions as a cohesive team in which all members
feel responsible for doing their part. The failure of a single
group member can adversely affect the entire group. For
example, if one student in a study group fails to read and
explain an important section of an assigned chapter, the entire
group will be unprepared for questions related to the material
covered in that chapter. Few tasks can be accomplished by a
group without information, advice, support, and assistance
from its interdependent members.
Working Working describes the physical and/or
mental effort group members expend when trying to
accomplish something. That “something” can be a social
goal, such as getting friends together for a surprise party;
6 Chapter 1
a family goal, such as deciding jointly where to go on
vacation; a medical team’s goal of planning training sessions for improving patient care; or a management goal,
in which group members develop a strategic plan for
their organization.
Working in a group is not about hard labor. Rather,
when we work effectively in groups, we join others in a
productive and motivating experience in which members
combine their talents and energy to achieve a worthy goal.
Common Goal Group members come together for a
reason. Their collective reason defines and unifies the
group. A group’s common goal represents the shared purpose or objective toward which group work is directed. A
group’s goal guides its actions, sets standards for measuring success, provides a focus for resolving conflict, and
motivates members. Large-scale studies have found that a
clear common goal is the most significant factor separating
successful groups from unsuccessful groups.13
It doesn’t matter whether you call it a goal, an objective, a purpose, a mission, an assignment, or a vision. Without a common goal, group members would have difficulty
answering several critical questions: Why are we meeting?
Why should we care or work hard? Where are we going?
How will we know when we get there?
Some groups have the freedom to develop their own
goals. For example, a gathering of neighbors may meet to
discuss ways of reducing crime in the neighborhood, or
nursing students may form a study group to prepare for
and do well on an upcoming exam. Other goals are
assigned. A marketing instructor may require a semesterlong project to assess a student group’s ability to develop a
marketing campaign. An industrial company may assemble a group of employees with the purpose of developing
recommendations for safer storage of hazardous chemicals. Whatever the circumstances, effective groups work to
accomplish a common goal.
Figure 1.2 Components of Systems Theory
Example:
Typical Work
Group
Task requirements;
member
characteristics,
skills, expertise,
attitudes
Planning; leadership;
cohesiveness; conflict
resolution; decision
making and problem
solving
Group performance;
decisions; achieving
the common goal;
member satisfaction
Group Output Becomes New Input
Components
of Systems
Theory
INPUT
PROCESS
OUTPUT
Group Process Becomes
New Input
Example:
Professional
Football Team
Game rules, team
composition, and
player skills (task
requirements); the
personal traits and
attitudes of owners,
coaches, players,
and referees
(interpersonal
factors)
Practice, including how
to deal with various
field/weather conditions
(planning); choice and
execution of specific
plays during a game
(leadership); support or
lack of support from fans
(unified or conflicting);
team players/substitutes
on game days and
adaptation to opponents
(decision making and
problem solving)
Wins or losses and
point spread (group
performance);
individual player
performance records
(member performance);
player health and
attitudes, and fan
jubilation or misery
(member satisfaction)
ing together to form a complex whole that adapts to a
changing environment. However, groups are not the only
systems in our lives. In biology, we study the digestive system, the nervous system, and the immune system, and recognize that when one of these biological systems fails, it can
affect the others with serious or even deadly consequences.
We embrace the democratic system of government, marvel
at our solar system, and hope that our computer system
doesn’t crash.
One way of looking at groups and systems is through
Input-Process-Output (I-P-O) models. Inputs come from both
outside the group and within the group. Process takes place
within the group as it works to achieve its common goal. Output, the results of input and process, can influence future input
and processes. Understanding how your group functions as a
system is just as important as doing your personal best in
helping your group succeed.
WRITING PROMPT
Theory in Groups
Systems Theory
Objective: Provide an example that shows how the Input-ProcessOutput Model of Systems Theory demonstrates the complex nature
of group communication.
Systems Theory (Figure 1.2) encompasses a group of theories that examines how interdependent factors affect one
another in a complex environment. In communication studies,
Systems Theory recognizes that “communication does not
take place in isolation, but rather necessitates a communication system.”14
Every group we describe in this textbook is a system, a
collection of interacting and interdependent elements work-
Systems Theory
Identify the input, process, and output of a college study group,
and explain how the group’s process and output can affect input.
The response entered here will appear in
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viewed by your instructor.
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1.2.2: Types of Groups
Like their individual members, groups have diverse characteristics and goals. Although a basketball team, a study
group, a corporate board of directors, and a homecoming
Introduction to Group Communication
committee are groups in which interdependent members
collaborate with one another to achieve a common goal,
each one has unique features and functions.
The most common types of groups fall into eight categories that span a wide range of groups, from the most
personal and informal types of groups to more formal,
structured types. You can identify each type of group
(primary, social, self-help, learning, service, civic, organizational, and public) by observing its purpose (why
the group meets) and examples of membership (who is in
the group), as shown in Table 1.2.
7
belong to several organizational groups. You may be a
member of a production team or a work crew. You may
belong to a sales staff, service department, management
group, or research team.
As noted in Table 1.2, public group members interact
in front of or for the benefit of the public. Although public
groups may engage in information sharing, decision making, or problem solving, they are also concerned with making a positive impression on a public audience.
Virtual Teams
Table 1.2 Types of Groups
Examples of
Membership
Type of Group
Purpose
Primary
To provide members
with affection, support,
and a sense of
belonging
Family, best friends
Social
To share common
interests in a friendly
setting or participate in
social activities
Athletic team, college
sororities and fraternities
Self-Help
To support and encourage
members who want or
need help with personal
problems
Therapy groups, Weight
Watchers
Learning
To help members gain
knowledge and develop
skills
Study groups, ceramics
workshops
Service
To assist worthy causes
that help other people
outside the group
Kiwanis, charity or volunteer groups
Civic
To support worthy causes
that help people within
the group
Parent Teacher Associations (PTA), neighborhood
associations
Organizational
To achieve specific goals
on behalf of a business or
organization
Management teams,
committees
Public
To discuss important
issues in front of or for the
benefit of the public
Open-to-the-public panel
discussions, governance
groups
The eight types of groups are not absolute categories.
Many of them overlap. A Girl Scout belongs to both a social
group and a learning group, and their scout leaders, who
operate under the direction of the national association,
belong to both a service group and an organizational
group. The last two types of groups in Table 1.2—organizational groups and public groups—serve the interests of recognized organizations and public audiences.
Organizational groups may have goals as complex as
reengineering a global corporation or as simple as sharing
relevant information at a weekly staff meeting. Most
organizational groups work within a system that has its
own rules, vocabulary, levels of power, and member
responsibilities. If you are employed, you probably
Groups in Cyberspace
Objective: List the fundamental requirements of an effective virtual team, regardless of the medium or media members use to
collaborate with one another.
Today, regardless of when or where you work in groups, you
already do or inevitably will participate as the member of a virtual team. Virtual teams rely on one or more mediated technologies to collaborate, often across time, distance, and
organizational boundaries.
Thousands of miles and several time zones may separate
virtual team members, whereas others work in the same room
using technology to collaborate on a group project. Diverse
and geographically distributed teams are now the model for
businesses and governments around the world. In fact,
research concludes that “with rare exceptions all organizational teams are virtual to some extent.”15
Virtual teams are everywhere. At least 75 percent of U.S.
companies allow employees to work remotely—and that number is expected to increase significantly.16 Surveys of multinational corporations reported that 80 percent of the respondents
were part of a virtual team; 63 percent indicated that about half
of these teams were located in other countries. In one survey
of major corporations, 52 percent reported that virtual teams
are used by top management, and 79 percent are used for
project teams.17 Some companies—with names such as Art &
Logic, Automattic, Basecamp, and peopleG2—operate completely or mostly in virtual teams.18
The increasing prevalence of virtual teams creates new
challenges: Employees rated tasks such as managing conflict,
making decisions, expressing opinions, and generating innovative ideas as more difficult in virtual teams than in face-toface meetings. In addition, 95 percent reported that their
greatest challenge was overcoming the inability to read nonverbal behavior in text-only contexts. And 90 percent said they
don’t have enough time during virtual meetings to build relationships. The top-rated characteristics of an effective virtual
teammate include:
1. a willingness to share relevant information,
2. active engagement and interaction with others, and
3. the ability to collaborate.
8 Chapter 1
These are also essential communication competencies needed by the members of all groups—whether meeting face to face or via cyberspace with members across
the globe.19
Groups must balance the advantages and disadvantages of using technology. On the one hand, organizations
spend billions of dollars on technology that allows employees to communicate with one another, collaborate on projects, and participate in virtual meetings. On the other hand,
“hundreds of millions of those dollars will be wasted chasing
fads and installing technology that people will use to work
the same way they worked before the technology was
installed.”20
Virtual teams are complex. Members may come from a
variety of organizations, cultures, time zones, and geographic locations, not to mention the many technologies
they can use. For example, their levels of experience and
expertise in using a particular virtual medium may vary. They
may also have computer systems with different capabilities,
such as older or newer versions of the software being used
for group communication. As a result, virtual teams develop
distinct group dynamics compared to groups that meet
face to face.21
In addition to the ones you know best (email, social
media tools, instant messaging, and frequently-used video
and audio conferencing systems), hundreds of commercially
available tools help virtual teams manage their work in different time/space configurations. Table 1.3 provides examples of
virtual team products by function. By the time you read this
list, there are sure to be new, improved, and more innovative
tools for groups to use. Have you used any of these tools?
Did they help or hinder your group? What other products
would you add to the list?
Table 1.3 Virtual Tools for Virtual Teams22
Function
Sample Products
Collaboration
Redbooth, Slack, Blackboard Collaborate
Project Management
Microsoft Project, Basecamp, Primavera
Document Storage/File
Sharing
Dropbox, Google Drive, Share Point
Electronic Meetings
WebEx, GoToMeetings, Google Hangouts
High-End Video Conferencing
Cisco Telepresence, Polycrom Telepresence, Logitech LifeSize
Meeting Schedulers
Doodle, Timebride, ScheduleOnce
Document Co-Creation
Google Docs, Prezi, Conceptboard
Whether you welcome the benefits of working in virtual
teams or not, they are here to stay. These powerful tools will
become increasingly prevalent in all types of groups. Certainly, in organizational environments, virtual teams will
become “the norm in conducting business.”23 To help you
succeed in these groups, we offer strategies and skills
throughout this textbook that focus on working effectively and
efficiently in virtual environments. The following are fundamental requirements for an effective virtual team:
• adequate resources (funding, people, skills, etc.) to
achieve a group’s common goal,
• appropriate and effective information technology and
support,
• members with adequate and appropriate electronic communication skills,
• members with adequate and appropriate collaboration
skills suited to a mediated environment, and
• members who serve as role models for others in virtual
interactions.24
1.3: Advantages and
Disadvantages of Working
in Groups
1.3
Compare the advantages and disadvantages of
working in groups
If you’re like most people, you probably have suffered
through at least one long, boring meeting run by an
unskilled and incompetent leader. Perhaps you have lost
patience with a group that couldn’t accomplish a simple
task that you could do easily by yourself. Even so, the
potential advantages of working in effective groups far
outweigh the disadvantages.
Let’s begin by acknowledging several certainties about
group work. There is no question that some tasks are
impossible for one person to complete alone. Prehistoric
people joined together in groups to hunt large, ferocious
animals and to protect their families and clan. Today, we
form groups to build skyscrapers and rocket ships, to perform life-saving surgery and classical symphonies, and to
play football games and clean up oil spills.
In our daily lives, we also rely on smaller groups such
as mobile emergency medical teams, study groups, neighborhood safety committees, coaching staffs, and our families to make decisions and solve problems. Do these groups
do a better job than one person can? If the group is poorly
organized, lacks a clear goal, and includes unmotivated
members with limited or inappropriate knowledge and
skills, the answer is no. However, when groups work effectively, efficiently, and ethically, they have the potential to
outperform individuals working alone and can make significant contributions to the quality of our lives. The critical question is not, “Are groups better than individuals?”
Rather, ask yourself this: “How can we become a more
effective group?”25
Introduction to Group Communication
GroupWork It Was the Best of Teams, It Was the Worst
of Teams
Directions: This activity is designed to help you identify some of the advantages
and disadvantages of working in groups based on your own experiences and
the experiences of others. Consider one of the groups in which you have
worked. Then think about what you liked and disliked about working in that
group. Now you should be able to identify characteristics unique to the best
groups and worst groups.
The Best of Teams
Example: One member kept track of everyone’s birthday. On the meeting
day closest to a birthday, we presented a card signed by everyone and
shared a cake or cookies.
1.
9
Figure 1.4 Advantages of Working in Groups
Advantages
Better
Decision
Making
Superior
Resources
Member
Satisfaction
Enhanced
Learning
Greater
Creativity
considered are the ways in which group communication can
enhance member satisfaction, learning, and creativity.
Better Decision Making Do groups or individuals
2.
3.
4.
The Worst of Teams
Example: The boss or leader refused to explain her decisions. When
we’d ask why we could or couldn’t do something, she’d say,
“Because I said so.”
1.
2.
3.
4.
Figure 1.3 notes that, in most cases, the potential
advantages of group collaboration far outweigh the potential disadvantages.
Figure 1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Working
• Better Decision Making
• Superior Resources
• Member Satisfaction
• Enhanced Learning
• Greater Creativity
• More Time, Energy, and Resources
• Potential for Conflicts
• People Problems
Disadvantages
Advantages
in Groups
1.3.1: Advantages of Working
in Groups
The advantages of working in groups (Figure 1.4) outweigh
the disadvantages when group members collaborate effectively with one another in pursuit of a common goal. The
first two advantages—Better Decision Making and Superior
Resources—are the most obvious. What you may not have
perform better and make better decisions? The answer is: It
depends. When a task is fairly simple and routine (e.g.,
write a memo, total the day’s receipts), an individual working alone may perform it as well as or better than a group.
A simple, routine task such as putting stamps on envelopes
does not require a group because collaboration and interdependence are unnecessary. Even a more difficult task or
problem that has one right answer may be solved more
easily by a smart person or expert working alone than by a
group. However, when a task is complex and the answers
or solutions are unclear or require an understanding of
multiple perspectives, a group has the potential to do a better job than individuals working alone.
Once researchers understood the types of jobs that
groups do best, their findings were nearly universal:
groups usually outperform the average of their members’
individual judgments.26 Of course, there are exceptions. In
a “bad” group of poorly chosen or too-busy members lacking sufficient information, motivation, and structured techniques, failure is likely.
Every group member brings a
wide variety of resources, including different life experiences, special expertise, and unique perspectives as well as
ideas, information, and opinions about a variety of issues.
When group members share what they know and what they
believe, it broadens and enriches the group’s knowledge
base. These collective ideas, information, and perspectives
are likely to result in better-informed, more meaningful, and
more effective group decision making and problem solving.
With rare exceptions, a group has more and better resources
to call upon than an individual working alone.
Superior Resources
The social benefits of group
work can be just as important as task achievement. People
belong to and work in groups because groups give them
the opportunity to make friends, socialize, receive peer
support, and feel part of a unified and successful team. Not
surprisingly, the more opportunities group members have
to communicate with one another, the more satisfied they
are with the group experience.
Member Satisfaction
10 Chapter 1
Working in groups is a collective learning experience in which members share ideas,
information, and opinions relevant to a common goal.
Research comparing cooperative, group-based learning
with traditional approaches in college courses indicates
that collaborative learning promotes higher individual
achievement in knowledge acquisition, retention, accuracy,
creativity in problem solving, and higher-level reasoning.27
New members learn from veterans, and amateurs learn
from experts. In addition to learning more about the topics
under discussion, members also learn more about how to
work as a group.
Enhanced Learning
In addition to performing better than individuals working alone, groups also generate more innovative ideas and creative solutions. As
MIT management professor Peter Senge writes, “If you
want something really creative done, you ask a team to
do it—instead of sending one person off to do it on his or
her own.”28
Lee Towe, author of Why Didn’t I Think of That? Creativity in the Workplace, writes that the “key to creativity is the
mental flexibility required to mix thoughts from our many
different experiences.”29 When you combine your thoughts
with those of other group members, you increase the
group’s creative potential. In addition to providing a creative multiplier effect by tapping more information, more
brainpower, and more insights, groups have “awesome
superiority” when trying to unleash creativity and solve
challenging problems.30
Greater Creativity
Groups in Balance . . .
Create Synergy
When three or more interdependent group members collaborate and work toward achieving a common goal, they have
the potential to create a synergy. The term synergy, often
expressed as the whole is greater than the sum of its parts,
comes from the Greek word synergos, meaning “working
together.” Synergy does not occur when people work alone;
it only occurs when people work together. In terms of group
communication, synergy is a state in which the effective
collaboration of group members produces better results
than what would be expected given the sum of skills and
abilities of individual members working alone. A sports team
of good players may, by the virtue of synergy, defeat a team
with several superstars. A design team at a high-tech company may surprise the world with new technological breakthroughs that the individuals on the team could not have
developed alone.
Effective groups are synergistic. Baseball teams without
superstars have won the World Series. Companies with executives who earn modest salaries have surpassed other companies
in which CEOs are paid millions of dollars. Ordinary groups
have achieved extraordinary results. Synergy occurs when the
knowledge, talents, and dedication of group members merge
into a force that surpasses anything group members could
have produced without collaboration.
1.3.2: Disadvantages of Working
in Groups
The advantages are clear when groups are working efficiently and effectively. The disadvantages (Figure 1.5) are
more likely to occur when working in a group is not the
best way to achieve a goal, when members don’t work to
their full potential, or when problems interfere with
group members’ willingness and ability to communicate.
The most common complaints about working in groups
concern the amount of time, energy, and resources
expended by groups and the conflicts and people problems that can arise.
Figure 1.5 Disadvantages of Working in Groups
Disadvantages
More Time,
Energy, and
Resources
Potential for
Conflicts
People
Problems
Working in
groups costs time, energy, and resources. Nonproductive
meetings, poor communication, and vague group objectives can gobble up as many as two of every five workdays.
Workers report spending an average of 5.6 hours a week in
meetings, and rate 69 percent of those meetings as ineffective.31 The wasted psychic and physical energy expended
in poorly run meetings can lead to counterproductive
stress and indifference. We spend a lot of time and energy
in groups; if that time and effort are wasted, we are throwing away valuable resources.
More Time, Energy, and Resources
Potential for Conflict  Very few people enjoy or seek
out conflict, but when group members work together to
achieve a common goal, there is always the potential for disagreement. Members who habitually disagree may be seen as
aggressive or disruptive. As a result, some people will do
almost anything to avoid conflict and confrontation. They may
go out of their way to avoid working in groups, even though
discussing different perspectives and exploring alternative
options promote better group problem solving and decision
Introduction to Group Communication
making. Some group members avoid meetings in which controversial issues are scheduled for discussion; others are
unwilling to express their opinions when they do attend.
1.4: The Nature of Group
Communication
People Problems As much as we may want others to
share our interests, viewpoints, and willingness to work,
there is always the potential for individual group members
to create problems. Like anyone else in our daily lives,
group members can be stubborn, lazy, and even cruel. The
presence of certain members can even influence decisions
about whether to participate in a particular group.
To avoid conflict or extra work, some members may go
along with the group or play “Follow the leader” rather than
search for the best solution to a problem. Strong, domineering members can put so much pressure on others that they
effectively stifle productive discussion and constructive dissent. Although no one wants to work with a group of
unpleasant members, there may be circumstances in which
people problems cannot be avoided. Fortunately, this textbook provides a wide range of effective strategies and skills
for conducting successful and efficient meetings, managing
the inevitable conflicts that arise in groups, and coping with
and overcoming inappropriate member behavior.
1.4
Watch The Group Project
11
Describe how understanding the components of
the group communication process can enhance
group effectiveness
Now that you have learned the basic components and types
of groups, two concepts can help you to better understand
the complex nature of group communication: (1) the critical
functions of communication theories, strategies, and skills;
and (2) the nature of the group communication process.
1.4.1: Theories, Strategies, and Skills
Throughout this textbook, we examine the theories, strategies, and skills needed to promote and balance group productivity and member satisfaction.32
• A theory is a clear, systematic, and predictive explanation of a phenomenon.
Unlike the personal hunches or guesses you may have
about how effective groups work, who will win Dancing
with the Stars, or the impact of climate change, valid theories are based on the interpretation of knowable and
verifiable facts. Group communication theories help us
understand what is occurring in a group as well as why
groups succeed or fail.
• A strategy is a method, guideline, or technique for dealing with the issues and problems that arise in groups.
Watch a clip of the video “The Group Project,” which illustrates
several disadvantages of working in groups as well as questions
about member ethics.
WRITING PROMPT
Advantages and Disadvantages of Working in Groups
1.
2.
The chapter text identifies several types of groups. Which type
or types would best describe the group in the video?
To what extent did one member’s gossip about Sarah influence
the group leader? How would a comment like this influence you
in a similar group?
The response entered here will appear in the
performance dashboard and can be viewed by
your instructor.
Submit
Effective strategies are based on theories. Without theories, you won’t know why a particular strategy works
in one situation yet fails in another. If, contrary to leadership theory, you believe that a domineering leadership style is more effective than a democratic one, you
may find yourself at odds with group members and
even out of your leadership job.
• A skill is a specific ability that helps a group engage in
collaborative work to achieve its common goal.
Communication skills are the most important skills
available to group members. Like strategies, skills are
most effective when their use is based on theories. For
example, although active and empathic listening skills
are difficult to master, theories and research demonstrate
they are well worth the effort because they enhance the
quality of group collaboration.
A group member may know what strategies and skills
to use, but may have no idea why the strategies work or
how to perform the required skills. Eager to solve problems or achieve a common goal, a group may use inappropriate skills or hunches that don’t address the true causes
of a problem or help achieve the goal. Using strategies and
12 Chapter 1
skills without an understanding of appropriate theories
can make the process of working in groups inefficient, ineffective, and frustrating for all members.
1.4.2: The Group
Communication Process
Figure 1.6 illustrates the interactions among the six basic
elements of group communication.
Figure 1.6 The Group Communication Process
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MEMBER #3
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MEMBER #1
Explain how successful groups balance various
dialectic tensions by using a collaborative both/
and approach
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Feedback
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CONTEXT
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1.5: Balance as the Guiding
Principle of Group Work
1.5
MEMBER #2
CONTEXT
Communication is complex enough when just two people
interact, and becomes even more complicated when additional people are involved. At its most fundamental level,
the group communication process includes six basic elements common to all forms of human communication:
members, messages, context, channels, feedback, and
noise. These elements are described in Table 1.4.
CONTEXT
MEMBER #4
= Noise
Effective communication helps group members create
a worthy common goal, share relevant information and
opinions, make sound decisions, effectively solve problems, and develop supportive interpersonal relationships.
At the heart of this textbook is an important guiding principle: An ideal group succeeds because it achieves balance,
a state of equilibrium in which extreme approaches neither
dominate nor interfere with the group’s ultimate ability to
achieve its common goal.
In group communication, the group’s common goal is
the point on which members must balance many factors. A
group that makes a decision or completes an assigned task is
not in balance if group members end up hating one another. A
group that relies on one or two members to do all of the work
is not in balance. Effective groups weigh factors such as the
group’s task and social functions, individual and group
needs, and the responsibilities of leadership and followership. Achieving balance requires an understanding of the
interplay of the contradictory forces that operate in all groups.
1.5.1: Groups in Balance
All of us balance competing options every day. Should you
work or play? Should you spend or save? Should you eat a
Table 1.4 Basic Elements of Group Communication
Basic Elements of
Group Communication Description
Group Examples
Members
People with distinct knowledge, experiences, personality
traits, attitudes, skills, and cultural backgrounds who are recognized as belonging to the group
A surgical team includes one or more surgeons, an anesthesiologist, and function-specific surgical nurses.
Messages
The ideas, information, opinions, claims, and/or feelings
expressed by group members that generate meaning in others
Group members ask for and share relevant ideas, information,
and opinions.
Context
The physical and psychological environment in which a group
communicates, including factors such as group size, working
conditions, and the relationships among members
A study group meeting in the college cafeteria communicates
in a different context than a corporate marketing team holding
a video conference with international clients.
Channels
The media through which group members share messages
using one or more of their five senses in face-to-face or mediated settings
Group members express themselves verbally (words), nonverbally (facial expressions, body language, vocal cues) and/or
through various mediated channels.
Feedback
Verbal and/or nonverbal responses from members that
indicate how well others received and interpreted
a message
Group members noticeably respond verbally, nonverbally,
and/or through mediated channels to the meaning of others’
messages.
Noise
Any external (sounds, room conditions) or internal (attitudes,
beliefs, and values) factors that interfere with how well members express themselves or interpret the messages of others
External Noise: Hallway sounds, hot/cold room, poor lighting,
uncomfortable seating Internal Noise: Biases, worried
thoughts, anger, fatigue, hunger, headaches
Introduction to Group Communication
13
by ongoing, dialectic tensions among the multiple contradictions, complexities, and changes in human experiences.33 The
following pairs of common folk proverbs illustrate such contradictory, dialectic tensions:
“Opposites attract,” but “Birds of a feather flock together.”
“Two’s company; three’s a crowd,” but “The more, the merrier.”34
Successful groups learn to balance the competing and contradictory
forces that operate in all groups.
big bowl of ice cream or a piece of fresh fruit for dessert?
Such tensions are best resolved by taking a both/and
approach rather than the either/or perspective just described.
For example, if you’re lucky, you may have both a job that
pays well and one in which you enjoy working. If you both
spend wisely and save more, you can look forward to a
more secure financial future. If you eat both small portions
of ice cream and fresh fruit, the result is a more balanced
diet. Even in close personal relationships, a couple may both
cherish their time together and respect each other’s need for
time apart. As you will see, a both/and approach helps group
members collaborate with one another in pursuit of a common goal.
1.5.2: Balancing Group Dialectics
The term dialectics, a method for examining and resolving two contradictory or opposing ideas, may be new to
you. Linked to the notion of dialectics is the need for balance as a means of maintaining equilibrium between the
competing pressures in groups. It may help you to remember that the prefix di- means two, as in diagonal (joining
two opposite points) or dialogue (a conversation between
two people). Effective groups engage in a cooperative
effort to balance group dialectics through effective communication strategies.
Rather than trying to prove that one of these contradictory proverbs is truer than the other—an either/or response—
relational dialectics takes a both/and approach. Unlike
relational dialectics and more narrow in scope, group dialectics are the inevitable, contradictory tensions group members
experience as they collaborate with one another to achieve a
common goal. Researchers describe several ways in which
groups try to resolve such dialectic tensions. We have consolidated these options into four categories, each of which is followed by an example. The first three are usually less effective
than the fourth, which is both the most effective and (not surprisingly) the most difficult.35
• Do Nothing
A group and its members ignore, deny, or pretend to fix
dialectic tensions. In other words, they do nothing. If the
tensions are trivial or diminish with time, this strategy can
work. Suppose a person invited to join the group because
of a specialized expertise or talent dominates discussions
and belittles less-informed group members; the group
may tolerate the resulting tension, hoping that group pressure eventually will modify the new member’s behavior.
• Select Only One and Ignore the Other
A group chooses only one of the dialectic behaviors, such
as stick to a strict agenda or rely on creativity. Or even
though a group knows that two absent members would
vote against a proposal, they go ahead and make the
decision anyway—all in the name of avoiding tensions.
• Choose Different Options for Different Situations
Say that a group’s monthly meeting usually adheres to a
highly structured agenda. When group members have difficulty coming up with new ideas or a range of solutions to
a problem, they may choose a dissimilar approach: set
aside the agenda and do some unstructured brainstorming. Switching back and forth may work when the group
carefully chooses techniques compatible with the group’s
task and member traits.
• Collaborate
Theory in Groups
Relational Dialectics Theory
Objective: Evaluate the different methods groups use to balance
the dialectic tensions that arise when members collaborate to
achieve a shared goal.
Communication scholars Leslie Baxter and Barbara Montgomery use the term dialectics to describe the complex and contradictory nature of personal relationships. Their Relational
Dialectics Theory claims that relationships are characterized
In our definition of group communication, we use the
term collaboration to describe coordinated group interaction in which interdependent members share a common goal, respect others, and work together. Effective
collaboration also occurs when a group recognizes dialectic tensions and attempts to work out creative, both/
and responses to it.36 Depending on the nature of the
problem—be it the potential for conflict between members, a domineering member, tension between structure
and spontaneity, or any other tension—the group may
choose any of the above three options, or collaborate
with one another by balancing a both/and approach.
14 Chapter 1
When members collaborate, they openly acknowledge
and honestly confront the dialectic tensions. Only then
can they discuss ways to balance the contradictory tensions in the hope that the problems will be resolved.
A group’s inability to recognize and appropriately address
serious dialectic tensions can result in failure to achieve a common goal as well as member dissatisfaction and antagonism.
Restoring balance and resolving dialectic tensions are critical
tasks in all groups seeking to achieve a common goal.37
Successful groups balance dialectic tensions by using
a collaborative both/and approach. You may both enjoy
warm friendships with some members and effectively
cope with members who are difficult. Your group may
want both a stable, predictable process of problem solving
and the freedom to experiment and seek creative outcomes. Table 1.5 presents nine group dialectic tensions
that call for a balanced approach to their resolution.38
Table 1.5 Group Dialectics
Group Dialectics
Balancing Group Dialectics
Individual Goals
m Group Goals
Members’ personal goals are balanced with the group’s common goal.
Conflict m
Cohesion
The value of constructive conflict is balanced with the need for unity and cohesiveness.
Conforming m
Nonconforming
A commitment to group norms and standards is balanced with a willingness to differ and change.
Task Dimensions
m Social
Dimensions
The responsibility and motivation to complete tasks are balanced with promoting member relationships.
A group will not function well—or at all—if members focus entirely on their individual goals rather than on the group’s common goal.
When a group agrees on a clear and important goal, members can pursue both individual and group goals as long as their personal
goals do not undermine the common goal. For example, if you join a group because you’re interested in forming a romantic
attachment with another member, your support of the group’s common goal may impress the person you desire, allowing you to
attain your individual goal.
In the best of groups, your personal goals support the group’s common goal. If you do not share the group’s goal, you may
become frustrated or even try to undermine the group. In ideal groups, members negotiate their personal needs and interests to
achieve a balance between the dialectic tension of being an independent member of an interdependent group.
Conflict is unavoidable in effective groups. How else can members express disagreements that may lead to better solutions? How
else can groups ensure that ethical standards are upheld? Groups without constructive conflict are groups without the means to
analyze the wisdom of their decisions. At the same time, groups also benefit from cohesion—the mutual attraction and teamwork
that holds the members of a group together. All for one and one for all! Cohesive groups are committed and unified, but they are also
willing to disagree and engage in conflict when necessary.
Group norms are specific standards of behavior expected by members of a particular group. Norms affect the quality and quantity of
work by group members. Dialectic tensions can arise when one or more members challenge a group norm or standard. Effective
groups recognize that constructive criticism contributes to group success. Contradictory group norms highlight the need for both
conformity and nonconformity.
The best groups negotiate the task dimensions 4 social dimensions dialectic by balancing work with social interaction. A group’s
task dimensions focus on achieving its goal. The social dimensions focus on the interpersonal relationships among group
members. Thus, a group discussing a department’s budget primarily focuses on its task. If, however, at the end of the meeting,
the group surprises a member with a cake in celebration of her birthday, the group’s focus shifts to the social dimension. More
often, groups exhibit both task and social dimensions when they get the job done in a way that makes everyone feel socially
accepted and valued.
When groups balance work and play, they are more productive. Think of how frustrating it is to work on a group task when
members don’t get along. Think of how disappointing it is to work with friends who don’t take a task seriously or don’t make significant contributions. The old saying “All work and no play makes Jack [or Jill] a dull boy [or girl]” certainly applies to groups. However,
all play and no work can make you unemployed.39
Homogeneous m
Heterogeneous
Member similarities are balanced with member differences in skills, roles, personal characteristics, and cultural perspectives.
The prefixes homo and hetero come from the Greek language. Homo means “same or similar”; hetero means “different.” A
homogeneous group is composed of members who are the same or very similar to one another. The members of a
heterogeneous group are different from one another.
Not surprisingly, there is no such thing as a purely homogeneous group because no two members can be exactly the same.
Certainly, some groups are more homogeneous than heterogeneous. For example, the Black Caucus in the U.S. Congress is more
homogeneous than the Congress as a whole. The legal team representing a client is more homogeneous in terms of education,
income, professional experience, and lifestyle than the jury selected to hear the case. Every person on this Earth—and thus every
member of a group—is different, and that’s a good thing. If every group member were exactly alike, the group would not achieve
much more than one member working alone. At the same time, similarities assure members that they share some common
characteristics, traits, and attitudes.
Leadership m
Followership
Effective and ethical leadership is balanced with committed and responsible followership.
Effective leadership has many components and challenges. It is not a solo task—it also requires competent and responsible
followers. Effective leaders have the confidence to put their egos aside and bring out the leadership in others.40 When group
members assume specific leadership functions, the group has achieved an optimum balance of both leadership and followership.
Introduction to Group Communication
15
Table 1.5 Group Dialectics (Continued)
Group Dialectics
Balancing Group Dialectics
Structure m
Spontaneity
The need for structured procedures is balanced with the need for innovative and creative thinking.
Engaged m
Disengaged
Member energy and labor are balanced with the group’s need for rest and renewal.
Group communication scholar Marshall Scott Poole claims that procedures are “the heart of group work [and] the most powerful
tools we have to improve the conduct of meetings.”41 Structured procedures help groups balance participation, resolve conflicts,
organize discussions, and solve problems. However, if a group becomes obsessed with rigid procedures it misses out on the benefits
of spontaneity and creativity. Whether it’s just “thinking outside the box” or organizing a creative problem-solving session, groups can
reap enormous benefits by encouraging innovation and “what-if” thinking. Effective groups balance the need for structure with time
for spontaneous and creative thinking.
The engaged–disengaged dialectic has two dimensions—one related to the amount of activity, the other related to the level of
commitment. Groups often experience two opposite types of activities: high-energy, nonstop action, relieved by periods of relaxation
and renewal.
Effective groups understand that racing toward a distant finish line may only exhaust group members and leave some sitting on
the sidelines panting for breath. At the same time, low energy and inaction ac…