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Personality and Social Psychology

Body dissatisfaction assessed by the Photographic Figure Rating Scale is

associated with sociocultural, personality, and media influences

VIREN SWAMI,1,2 ROSANNE TAYLOR1 and CHRISTINE CARVALHO1

1Department of Psychology, University of Westminster, UK
2Department of Psychology, HELP University College, Malaysia

Swami, V., Taylor, R. & Carvalho, C. (2011). Body dissatisfaction assessed by the Photographic Figure Rating Scale is associated with sociocultural,
personality, and media influences. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 52, 57–63.

This study sought to investigate the convergent validity of a new measure of body dissatisfaction, namely the Photographic Figure Rating Scale (PFRS), in
relation to media influence, celebrity worship, the Big Five personality factors, and respondent weight status. A total of 401 female undergraduates com-
pleted a battery of scales consisting of the PFRS, the third revision of the Sociocultural Attitudes Toward Appearance Scale (SATAQ-3), a measure of
celebrity worship, a measure of the Big Five personality factors, and provided their demographic details. Results of a multiple regression showed that body
dissatisfaction was most strongly predicted by two of the SATAQ-3 subscales and participant body mass index, although celebrity worship and Emotional
Stability added incremental variance. Limitations of the current study are discussed in conclusion.

Key words: Body dissatisfaction; Photographic Figure Rating Scale; sociocultural influence; celebrity worship; Big Five.

Viren Swami, Department of Psychology, University of Westminster, 309, Regent Street, London W1B 2UW, UK. Tel: +44 207 9115000; e-mail: v.swami@
wmin.ac.uk

INTRODUCTION

There is now a substantial body of research suggesting that anxi-

ety about appearance is a ‘‘normative’’ experience among girls

and women in the West (e.g., Cash, 2004; Cash & Pruzinsky,

2002; Rodin, Silberstein & Striegel-Moore, 1984; Smolak, 2006;

Smolak & Levine, 1994) and increasingly in developing countries

(e.g., Mellor, McCabe, Ricciardelli, Yeow, Daliza & Hapidzal,

2009; Swami, 2006). The high proportion of women who report

that they are unhappy with their bodies is of particular concern

because of the established relationship between symptoms of neg-

ative body image and the development of eating disorders (e.g.,

Neumark-Sztainer, Paxton, Hannan, Haines & Story, 2006; Stice,

2001; Stice & Shaw, 2002). In many cases, negative body image

is also associated with poorer mental well-being (e.g., higher rates

of depression; Keery, van den Berg & Thompson, 2004; Paxton,

Neumark-Sztainer, Hannan & Eisenberg, 2006) and diminished

confidence in interpersonal relationships (e.g., Cash, Maikkula &

Yamamiya, 2004).

Given the key role that body dissatisfaction (typically defined

as negative self-evaluations of one’s own body; Stice & Shaw,

2002) plays in the etiology of eating disorders and poor mental

health, it is important to identify superior measures of the former.

While a number of different techniques exist for the measurement

of body dissatisfaction (see Thompson, 1990), the most common

form involves the selection of a figure that best represents a

woman’s perception of her own body size (e.g., Gardner, 2001;

Glauert, Rhodes, Byrne, Fink & Grammer, 2009; Truby & Paxton,

2002; Williams, Gleaves, Cepeda-Benito, Erath & Cororve,

2001).

Although there are a number of such stimulus sets in existence,

perhaps the most ecologically valid is the Photographic Figure

Rating Scale (PFRS; Swami, Salem, Furnham & Tovée, 2008b),

which uses images of real women rather than line-drawings or

computer-generated images. The PFRS, like its predecessors,

depicts a range of women varying in body size from emaciated to

obese (Swami et al., 2008b). Female participants are asked to rate

the figure that best represents their current body size and their

ideal body size, and body dissatisfaction is then measured as a

discrepancy score between current and ideal sizes. Initial work

with the PFRS has shown that is has good test-retest reliability

and high construct validity (Swami et al., 2008b), and it is

increasingly being used to measure both body dissatisfaction and

the thin ideal in different cultural and sub-cultural contexts (e.g.,

Swami, Henderson, Custance & Tovée (in press); Swami, Salem,

Furnham & Tovée, 2008c; Swami, Steadman & Tovée, 2009a;

Swami, Furnham, Chamorro-Premuzic et al., in press).

Even so, tests of the convergent validity of the PFRS with a

range of psychological dimensions remain limited. As a contribu-

tion to the literature, therefore, the present study sought to exam-

ine the associations between body dissatisfaction as measured

using the PFRS and sociocultural attitudes toward appearance,

celebrity worship, and the Big Five personality factors. Examining

the convergent validity of the PFRS also ties in with recent work

seeking to identify the sociocultural and individual difference

determinants of body image and body dissatisfaction (e.g.,

Grogan, 2007; McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2003; Smolak, Murnen &

Thompson, 2005). In the following sections, we briefly discuss

the variables used in the present study and their relationship with

body image as documented in the extant literature.

Sociocultural attitudes toward appearance

Driven by sociocultural theoretical models, much of the avail-

able research on body image has centered on the triad of media

influences, peer pressure, and parental pressure (e.g., Clark &

� 2010 The Authors.
Scandinavian Journal of Psychology � 2010 The Scandinavian Psychological Associations.

Published by Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 9600 Garsington
Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA. ISSN 0036-5564.

Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 2011, 52, 57–63 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9450.2010.00836.x

Tiggemann, 2006; Halliwell & Harvey, 2006; Shroff & Thomp-

son, 2006), with the former perhaps being the strongest focus of

attention. Thus, several meta-analyses (e.g., Grabe, Ward & Hyde,

2008; Groesz, Levine & Murnen, 2002) and numerous studies

(e.g., Durkin, Paxton & Sorbello, 2007; Humphreys & Paxton,

2004; McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2003; Monro & Huon, 2005) have

highlighted the deleterious effects on body image of exposure to

unrealistic media representations. In short, it is argued that the

media present standards for body slenderness, physical attractive-

ness, and athleticism that can cause body dissatisfaction when

they are internalized and to the extent that women feel unable

to achieve those standards (Thompson, van den Berg, Roehrig,

Guarda & Heinberg, 2004).

The most widely used scale that measures perceptions of media

influence and the internalization of media portrayals of bodily ide-

als is the Sociocultural Attitudes Toward Appearance Question-

naire (Heinberg, Thompson & Stormer, 1995), now in its third

revision (SATAQ-3; Thompson et al., 2004). The SATAQ-3 is a

30-item scale that measures four related aspects of media influ-

ence: (1) Information (the extent to which various media are con-

sidered an important source of information about appearance); (2)

Pressure (perceived pressure from various media to strive for ide-

als of attractiveness); (3) Internalization-General (the endorsement

and acceptance of media messages concerning unrealistic aesthetic

ideals); and (4) Internalization-Athlete (endorsement and accep-

tance of an athletic body ideal).

A number of studies have shown that the SATAQ-3 has high

internal consistency, and good construct, discriminant, and predic-

tive validity (e.g., Forbes, Jobe & Revak, 2006; Markland &

Oliver, 2008; Thompson et al., 2004), and it has also been trans-

lated into a number of different languages (e.g., Swami, 2009).

Previous work has shown that the subscales of the SATAQ-3 are

significantly associated with body image disturbance (Thompson

et al., 2004). For example, one study reported that Pressures and

Internalization-General scores were significantly higher among

eating disordered patients than college norms (Calogero, Davis &

Thompson, 2004). Likewise, in the present study, we hypothe-

sized that Pressures and Internalization-General subscale scores

would be significantly associated with body dissat

isfaction.

Celebrity worship

While media influences have been widely studied in the body

image literature, one particular aspect that remains under-

researched concerns aspects of celebrity worship, or the idolization

of celebrities as role models (Giles, 2002). The most prominent

theoretical account of celebrity worship was proposed by

McCutcheon, Lange, and Houran (2002), who postulated an

‘‘absorption-addiction’’ model to explain three increasingly

extreme sets of cognitions associated with parasocial (or one-

sided) relationships. In the first instance, ‘‘entertainment-social’’

celebrity worship reflects the social aspects of parasocial attach-

ment, and is driven by an attraction to a favorite celebrity

because of their perceived ability to entertain. For some individ-

uals, a compromised identity structure may lead to ‘‘intense-per-

sonal’’ celebrity worship, or a psychological absorption with a

celebrity. In extreme cases, this absorption may become addictive,

leading to ‘‘borderline-pathological’’ attitudes and behaviours that

serve to maintain an individual’s satisfaction with the parasocial

attachment (Giles & Maltby, 2004; Maltby, Houran, Lange, Ashe

& McCutcheon, 2002; McCutcheon et al., 2002).

This body of work has conceptualized celebrity worship as a

normal part of identity-development (e.g., Giles & Maltby, 2004;

McCutcheon et al., 2002), with possible effects on corporeal

experiences including body image disturbance. Specifically, it has

been suggested that a desire among respondents to look like ideal-

ized media icons may result in negative body image when those

bodily ideals are not attained (see Greenwood, 2009). Indeed,

some recent work has shown an association between celebrity

worship and symptoms of body image or eating disorders (e.g.,

Greenwood, 2009; Shorter, Brown, Quinton & Hinton, 2008) and

acceptance of cosmetic surgery (Swami, Taylor & Carvalho,

2009b). In the most relevant of these studies, Maltby, Giles, Bar-

ber, and McCutcheon (2005) reported a significant relationship

between intense-personal celebrity worship and preoccupation

with body shape. Based on this body of work, we hypothesized

that there would be significant associations between intense-per-

sonal celebrity worship and body dissatisfaction.

The Big Five Personality Factors

The association between body image and individual difference

factors has received rather less interest compared with sociocul-

tural factors, although there is now agreement that such factors

play a role in shaping body beauty ideals and body dissatisfaction

(e.g., Swami, Hadji-Michael & Furnham, 2008a). One set of indi-

vidual difference factors that has been implicated in body image

is the Big Five personality model, a hierarchical framework of

personality with five bipolar factors (i.e., Agreeableness, Consci-

entiousness, Emotional Stability, Openness, and Extraversion).

These factors represent personality at the broadest level of abstrac-

tion and reflect most individual differences in personality (Gold-

berg, 1993; McCrae & Costa, 1997).

The Big Five framework has been shown to have strong pre-

dictive ability in relation to a variety of real-world outcomes

(Chamorro-Premuzic, 2007), including body image. The most

consistent findings from this research suggests that Emotional

Stability (the tendency not to experience negative emotional

states) and Extraversion (the tendency to be gregarious, outgo-

ing, and assertive) are negatively correlated with body dissatis-

faction (e.g., Davis, Dionne & Lazarus, 1996; Davis, Shuster,

Blackmore & Fox, 2004; Swami et al., 2008a). In the present

study, we expected to replicate these associations between body

dissatisfaction and Emotional Stability and Extraversion, respec-

tively.

The present study

In summary, the present study sought to examine the convergent

validity of the PFRS in relation to sociocultural attitudes toward

appearance, celebrity worship, and the Big Five personality

factors. Concurrently, our work also extends the extant research

with its focus on the individual difference and sociocultural ante-

cedents of body dissatisfaction. Importantly, our study includes

both variables that have received widespread attention (sociocul-

tural attitudes toward appearance) and those that have received

58 V. Swami et al. Scand J Psychol 52 (2011)

� 2010 The Authors.
Scandinavian Journal of Psychology � 2010 The Scandinavian Psychological Associations.

relatively scant coverage (celebrity worship and the Big Five per-

sonality factors) in the body image literature.

METHOD

Participants

The participants of this study consisted of 401 female undergraduates
enrolled in various courses at a large university in Greater London (age
range 18–50 years, M = 24.72, SD = 5.87). Most participants were of
European Caucasian descent (63.6%), while others were of Asian
descent (13.7%), African Caribbean descent (13.7%), or some other
ancestry (9.0%). In total, 39.9% of participants self-reported as being
atheists, while 23.9% were Christians, 12.5% were unsure of their
religious beliefs, 8.7% were Muslims, and 15.0% were of some other
religious background. In terms of marital status, 35.4% reported that
they were single, 46.9% that they were in a relationship, 11.5% that
they were married, and 6.2% that they were separated. Participants’
body mass index (BMI) ranged from 14.53 to 31.64 kg/m2 (M = 21.68,
SD = 3.49).

Materials

Photographic Figure Rating Scale (PFRS; Swami et al., 2008b). This
scale is an advance on the Contour Drawing Figure Rating Scale
(Thompson & Gray, 1995) and consists of 10 greyscale photographic fig-
ures of real women in front-view. As discussed by Swami et al. (2008b),
the women in the images were captured in a set pose at a standard dis-
tance, wearing tight grey leotards and leggings, and had their faces
obscured to avoid any influence of facial cues. Moreover, the PFRS is
presented in gray scale so as to minimize the impact of ethnicity or skin
tone. The images represent two women from each of the established
BMI categories: emaciated (< 15 kg/m2), underweight (15–18.5 kg/m2), normal weight (18.5–24.9 kg/m2), overweight (25.0–29.9 kg/m2), and obese (> 30 kg/m2). In the present study, participants were asked to rate
(1) the figure that most closely resembled their own bodies (current), and
(2) the body they would most likely to possess (ideal). All ratings were
made on a 10-point scale, with 1 representing the woman with the lowest
BMI and 10 the woman with the highest BMI. A body dissatisfaction
score was then computed by subtracting ideal ratings from current rat-
ings. Previous work has shown that the PFRS has good test-retest reli-
ability and high construct validity (Swami et al., 2008b).

Sociocultural Attitudes Toward Appearance Questionnaire-3 (SATAQ-3;
Thompson et al., 2004). The SATAQ-3 is a 30-item scale measuring the
multidimensional impact of sociocultural influences on body image along
four dimensions (Information, Pressure, Internalization-General, and
Internalization-Athlete). The four factors are internally reliable, with
Cronbach’s alpha coefficients generally exceeding 0.80 (e.g., Thompson
et al., 2004). Items were rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale
(1 = Definitely disagree, 5 = Definitely agree), and subscale scores were
computed by taking the mean of items associated with each factor. In the
present study, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were as follows: Information,
0.87; Pressure, 0.84; Internalization-General, 0.90, and; Internalization-
Athlete, 0.93.

Celebrity Attitude Scale (CAS; McCutcheon et al., 2002). The CAS is a
34-item measure in which respondents are asked to indicate their attitude
towards their favorite celebrity that they themselves have named. The
CAS has a three-factor structure comprising Entertainment-social,
Intense-personal, and Borderline-pathological. Items were rated on a
5-point scale (1 = Strongly disagree, 5 = Strongly agree) and subscale
scores were computed by taking the mean of items associated with each
component. Previous work has shown that CAS has good internal consis-
tency and convergent validity (e.g., McCutcheon et al., 2002). In the
present study, internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) was high for all

three subscales: Entertainment-social, 0.89; Intense-personal, 0.91, and;
Borderline-pathological, 0.87.

Ten-Item Personality Inventory (TIPI; Gosling, Rentfrow & Swann,
2003). This is a brief scale for assessing the Big Five personality factors,
which shows adequate convergent and discriminant validity, test-retest
reliability, and patterns of external correlates (Gosling et al., 2003). Par-
ticipants rated the extent to which a pair of traits (e.g., ‘‘Extraverted,
enthusiastic’’) applied to them on a 7-point scale (1 = Disagree strongly,
7 = Agree strongly). Five items were reverse-coded, and two items were
averaged to arrive at scores for each of the Big Five personality

factors.

Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were as follows: Extraversion 0.52, Agree-
ableness 0.57, Conscientiousness 0.56, Emotional stability 0.50, and
Openness to experience 0.51. Although these alphas are generally low,
they were measured using only two items and are in line with norms (for
a discussion, see Gosling et al., 2003).

Demographics. All participants provided their demographic details con-
sisting of age, ethnicity, religion, marital status, height, and weight. The
latter two items were used to calculate participants’ BMI, as kg/m2.

Procedure

Once ethical approval for this study was obtained from the relevant uni-
versity ethics committee, three experimenters recruited participants
opportunistically from various campus locations. The nature of the exper-
iment was explained and, once participants provided informed consent,
they were provided with a paper-and-pencil questionnaire, which they
completed individually and anonymously. Once participants returned
their completed questionnaires to the experimenter, they were verbally
debriefed. All participants took part on a voluntary basis and were not
remunerated for their time.

Statistical analyses

All analyses were conducted on SPSS version 17.0. First, we examined
bivariate correlations between body dissatisfaction, the SATAQ-3 sub-
scales, the CAS subscales, the Big Five personality factors, and paramet-
ric participant demographics (age and BMI). We then conducted a
multiple linear regression with body dissatisfaction as the dependent vari-
able and all other variables as predictors. For these analyses, the alpha
for significance was set at 0.05.

RESULTS

Bivariate correlations

Descriptive statistics (Ms and SDs) for all variables and bivariate

correlations are reported in Table 1. As can be seen, body dissatis-

faction significantly and positively correlated with three of the

SATAQ-3 subscales (Information, Pressures, and Internalization-

General), two of the CAS subscales (Entertainment-social and

Intense-personal), and BMI, and significantly and negatively cor-

related with the Big Five factors of Extraversion, Emotional Sta-

bility, and Openness.

Multiple regressions

To examine which of the variables predicted body dissatisfac-

tion, we conducted a multiple hierarchical regression with body

dissatisfaction as the dependent variable. In order to see which

psychometric variables predicted body dissatisfaction once

women’s body size has been taken into consideration, participant

Scand J Psychol 52 (2011) Body dissatisfaction 59

� 2010 The Authors.
Scandinavian Journal of Psychology � 2010 The Scandinavian Psychological Associations.

BMI was included on its own in the first block. SATAQ-3 sub-

scale scores were then entered as predictor variables in the sec-

ond block, CAS subscale scores in the third block, the Big Five

personality factors in the fourth block, and participant age in the

fifth block. The regression results (reported in Table 2) showed

that BMI on its own accounted for 15.0% of the variance, SAT-

AQ-3 variables accounted for 20.0% of the variance, the CAS

variables 1.0% of the variance, and Big Five 1.0%. In the final

model, the only significant predictors of body dissatisfaction

were participant BMI, two SATAQ-3 subscales (Pressures and

Internalization-General), Intense-personal celebrity worship, and

Emotional Stability.

DISCUSSION

The primary aim of this study was to examine the convergent

validity of the PFRS in relation to sociocultural attitudes toward

appearance, celebrity worship, and the Big Five personality fac-

tors. Overall, the results of the current study supported our

hypotheses, showing significant associations between body dissat-

isfaction, media influence, celebrity worship, and several of the

Big Five personality factors. These results were largely supported

by our regression analysis, which showed that the predictor vari-

ables together accounted for 37.0% of the variance in body dissat-

isfaction.

Overall, the direction of specific predictions in the present study

supported our hypotheses and was in line with previous work.

First, we found that the SATAQ-3 variables of Pressure and Inter-

nalization-General strongly predicted (positively) body dissatis-

faction. This is in line with previous work showing that the

SATAQ-3 has strong predictive validity in relation to measures of

body image and that the Pressures and Internalization-General

variables are the strongest such predictors (e.g., Thompson et al.,

2004). More generally, our results centrally implicate the mass

media in developed societies in the promulgation of an unrealisti-

cally thin ideal and the subsequent body dissatisfaction experience

by women as a result (Swami, 2007).

Second, our results showed that Intense-personal celebrity wor-

ship was a significant predictor (positively) of body dissatisfac-

tion. These results support previous work showing a significant

association between Intense-personal celebrity worship and preoc-

cupation with body shape (Maltby et al., 2005) and acceptance of

cosmetic surgery (Swami et al., 2009b). More generally, our

results indicate a role for celebrity worship as a specific aspect of

media influence that is associated with measures of body image.

That is, the present results support the notion that corporeal expe-

riences are shaped, in part at least, by media influences and (as a

subset of that influence) the formation of parasocial relationships

with celebrities.

Finally, and consistent with previous work (e.g., Davis et al.,

1996, 2004; Swami et al., 2008a), our results showed that Emo-

tional Stability was negatively associated with body dissatisfac-

tion. On the other hand, although Extraversion was significant

correlated with body dissatisfaction, it did not emerge as a signifi-

cant predictor in our regression analysis. Moreover, it should be

noted that the Big Five personality factors (like celebrity worship)

only accounted for a small percentage of the variance in body

dissatisfaction, suggesting that these factors may not have much

real-world value in describing body dissatisfaction.

An important limitation of the present study was our reliance

on female undergraduates, which limits our ability to generalize

the present findings to other age groups or male populations. In

particular, it may be useful to examine to what extent the same

pattern of results hold among men, although it should also be

noted that no version of the PFRS currently exists for use among

men. In addition, at least one of our scales (i.e., the TIPI) showed

Table 1. Descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations between body dissatisfaction, SATAQ-3 subscales, CAS subscales, the Big Five personality
factors, age, and BMI

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15)

(1) Body dissatisfaction 0.22** 0.42** 0.15** 0.02 0.12* 0.17** 0.06 )0.12* 0.02 0.01 )0.15** )0.10* 0.01 0.39**
(2) SATAQ-3 Information 0.71** 0.74** 0.28** 0.38** 0.43** 0.07 )0.15** )0.10* 0.11* )0.31** )0.24** )0.13** )0.09
(3) SATAQ-3 Pressures 0.61** 0.33** 0.45** 0.39** 0.27** )0.15** )0.05 0.09 )0.44** )0.28** )0.15** 0.01
(4) SATAQ-3
Internalization-General

0.30** 0.33** 0.60** 0.12* )0.16** )0.14** 0.06 )0.48** )0.08 )0.17** )0.17**

(5) SATAQ-3
Internalization-Athlete

)0.03 )0.01 )0.09 0.07 )0.06 )0.15** )0.02 0.18** 0.11* 0.09

(6) CAS
Entertainment-Social

0.77** 0.72** )0.08 0.03 )0.03 )0.08 )0.44** )0.17** )0.19**

(7) CAS Intense-personal 0.55** )0.08 )0.20** )0.10* )0.28** )0.17** 0.13** )0.27**
(8) CAS
Borderline-pathological

0.10* 0.03 )0.07 )0.07 )0.16** )0.17** )0.08

(9) Extraversion 0.01 )0.21** 0.32** 0.47** )0.02 0.21**
(10) Agreeableness 0.19** 0.16** 0.06 0.17** 0.25**
(11) Conscientiousness 0.04 )0.01 0.15** 0.01
(12) Emotional stability 0.09 0.24** 0.14**
(13) Openness 0.18** 0.04
(14) Age 0.16**
(15) BMI
M 0.92 3.08 3.35 3.10 2.76 1.87 2.79 1.33 4.45 4.49 4.86 4.03 4.69 24.72 21.68
SD 1.29 0.52 0.77 0.51 0.77 0.65 1.08 0.37 1.47 1.21 1.45 1.36 1.36 5.87 3.49

Note: SATAQ-3 = Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire (3rd revision); CAS = Celebrity Attitude Scale; BMI = Body Mass Index.

60 V. Swami et al. Scand J Psychol 52 (2011)

� 2010 The Authors.
Scandinavian Journal of Psychology � 2010 The Scandinavian Psychological Associations.

only moderate internal consistency, and it will be important to

replicate these results using more robust measures of the Big Five

factors.

In similar vein, it may be useful for future work to use objec-

tive, rather than self-report, measures of key variables. In relation

to height and weight data, for example, it may be useful to obtain

objective measures, even though previous work has shown such

self-report data to be reliable when respondent anonymity is

ensured (Davis, 1990). Future work could also extend the current

work by including a wider array of psychological measures, such

as self-esteem, life satisfaction, and self-objectification. In addi-

tion, it may also be useful to examine the association of PFRS-

related variables and other aspects of the tripartite model of body

image, namely peer and family pressure.

In conclusion, our results lend support to the PFRS as an eco-

logically valid measure of body dissatisfaction among women.

Our results showed a role for pressure from the media, internaliza-

tion of media messages, the Big Five personality factors, and

celebrity worship in the development of negative body image.

These results may have important practical implications for

researchers and practitioners seeking to understand the psycholog-

ical antecedents of body dissatisfaction. Specifically, our results

suggest that the internalization of media influence may be the

dominant predictor of body dissatisfaction, over and above such

factors as personality and celebrity worship.

REFERENCES

Calogero, R. M., Davis, W. N. & Thompson, J. K. (2004). The sociocul-
tural attitudes toward appearance questionnaire (SATAQ-3): Reliabil-
ity and normative comparisons of eating disordered patients. Body
Image, 1, 193–198.

Table 2. Multiple hierarchical regression with body dissatisfaction as the dependent variable

Block F (df) Adj. R2 Item st. b t p

1 72.16* (1, 399) 0.15 Body mass index 0.39 8.50 < 0.001

2 43.45* (5, 395) D 0.20 Body mass index 0.40 9.52 < 0.001 Information 0.04 0.66 0.512 Pressures 0.51 8.60 < 0.001 Internalization-General 0.18 4.03 < 0.001 Internalization-Athlete 0.01 0.12 0.906

3 27.84* (8, 392) D 0.01 Body mass index 0.41 9.08 < 0.001 Information 0.01 0.17 0.863 Pressures 0.49 7.68 < 0.001 Internalization-General 0.18 3.89 < 0.001 Internalization-Athlete 0.01 0.14 0.893 Entertainment-Social 0.14 1.64 0.102 Intense-Personal 0.15 2.45 0.015 Borderline-Pathological 0.01 0.10 0.918

4 17.79* (13, 387) D 0.01 Body mass index 0.41 9.12 < 0.001 Information < 0.01 0.03 0.980 Pressures 0.48 6.86 < 0.001 Internalization-General 0.18 3.48 < 0.001 Internalization-Athlete < 0.01 0.03 0.973 Entertainment-Social 0.06 0.67 0.505 Intense-Personal 0.15 2.20 0.029 Borderline-Pathological 0.06 0.53 0.698 Extraversion )0.02 )0.36 0.718 Agreeableness < 0.01 0.05 0.960 Conscientiousness 0.06 1.23 0.221 Emotional Stability )0.10 )2.06 0.040 Openness )0.05 )0.75 0.453

5 16.60* (14, 386) D 0.00 Body mass index 0.41 8.93 < 0.001 Information < 0.01 0.11 0.914 Pressures 0.48 6.84 < 0.001 Internalization-General 0.18 3.60 < 0.001 Internalization-Athlete < 0.01 0.03 0.978 Entertainment-Social 0.08 0.83 0.405 Intense-Personal 0.15 2.27 0.024 Borderline-Pathological 0.05 0.44 0.695 Extraversion )0.01 )0.21 0.833 Agreeableness < 0.01 0.13 0.900 Conscientiousness 0.05 1.07 0.284 Emotional Stability )0.10 )2.17 0.031 Openness )0.04 )0.64 0.523 Age 0.05 1.05 0.296

Note: * p < 0.001.

Scand J Psychol 52 (2011) Body dissatisfaction 61

� 2010 The Authors.
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Received 14 November 2009, accepted 21 March 2010

Scand J Psychol 52 (2011) Body dissatisfaction 63

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The different colors are here to show you the five different parts of each

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in black.

Toto, Christian. “Donning The Uniform; Proponents give A+ To Student Dress Code.”

Washington Times, 24 Mar. 2003, B01. Nexis Uni, advance.lexis.com/api/permalink/

b01c400e-6695-48af-a924-271fdf1268c9/?context=1516831. Accessed 3 Aug. 2017.

Christian Toto is a freelance reporter and an award-winning journalist. He has been

writing for newspapers, magazines, and the Web for over ten years, and his work has appeared in

People magazine, MovieMaker magazine, The Denver Post, The Pittsburg Tribune-Review and

The Washington Times. He also provided movie commentary for the Dennis Miller Show and

runs the blog, “What Would Toto Watch?” He is also a member of the Broadcast Film Critics

Association, the Washington DC Area Film Critics Association, and the Denver Film Critics

Society. He currently resides in Denver, Colorado and frequently writes about popular culture

for The Washington Times. (“Topic-Christian Toto.” The Washington Times, The Washington

Times, n.d. washingtontimes.com/topics/christian-toto/. Accessed 3 Aug.

2017.)

Toto writes about the positive impact that school uniforms have had in the Southeast.

Toto interviewed a mother whose four children attend schools that require uniforms, and he

discusses the reasons uniforms are growing in popularity and numbers across the nation. The

parents that he interviewed all said that uniforms have eased their children’s lifestyle and

enhanced their performance in school. Toto writes that in addition to unifying the population of

school, school uniforms have also helped with school safety because no students have been

caught smuggling weapons and there is also significantly less fighting among the students. Toto

also discusses the complaints about uniforms from parents; he writes that the only complaint that

parents had was the high price of the uniforms. However, some parents have donated uniforms

outgrown by their children to help those who cannot afford them. Overall, he explains that the

students and parents have embraced the mandatory uniform policy due to all the positive results,

from elevated mock SAT scores to significantly less brawls in the school. This article will be

helpful in my essay because I can use the author’s research about how school uniforms have

positively affected students’ performance in school to support my argument that schools should

adopt a uniform policy. Another part of the article that I find really helpful is that Toto offers a

solution to the complaints from the parents about the high prices of uniforms. Toto’s article

extends some of the concerns from parents that my article by Mark Johnson only briefly

mentions.

Vitale, Robert “Opinions overflow – Folks at a meeting about a Hilltop Casino were split

between creating jobs or making a dumping ground.” Columbus Dispatch, 6 Jan. 2010,

01A. Nexis Uni, advance.lexis.com/api/permalink/b01c400e-6695-48af-a924-

271fdf1268c9/?context=1527720. 13 Aug. 2017.

Robert Vitale has been a reporter for The Columbus Dispatch since 2004. He graduated

from Ball State University in 1987, and began his career as an editor for The News Dispatch in

Michigan City, Indiana. For over 20 years, Vitale has extended his reporting efforts with the

Lansing State Journal, The Sheboygan Press, and Thomson Newspapers in Washington D.C.

(“Robert Vitale.” Facebook, Facebook, Inc., n.d., facebook.com/bob.vitale.1. Accessed 13 Aug.

2017.)

Vitale details the growing concerns local residents have about Columbus’ decision for a

casino location. The public meetings that were held in 2010 gave casino developers and city

officials clearer insight on what the people on the West Side wanted to gain as a result of the

casino being built in their neighborhood. Vitale writes about the emotional pleas many lifelong

residents of the Hilltop area extended to the panel of leaders at the Greater Hilltop Area

Commission meeting. This article shows the determination for a positive change in an area of

Columbus that rarely gets any attention. This article will be useful because of the predetermined

ideas and concerns that were voiced among area commissions and city leaders. Vitale writes

about how Penn National, the current casino developer, needed additional feedback as they

continued to map out plans for choosing the right location for their building. This also will be a

great addition because I will be able to compare these predicted concerns with those of

neighboring cities (as described in my other article by Corbin Smith) that have already begun to

see the effects of constructing a casino in their city.

Appleby, Andrew D. “Pay at the Pump: How $11 per Gallon Gasoline Can Solve the United

States’ Most Pressing Challenges.” Cumberland Law Review, vol. 40, no. 1, Jan. 2009,

pp. 3-85. EBSCOhost, cscc.ohionet.org/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.

aspx?direct=true&AuthType=cookie,ip,uid&db=a9h&AN=50467181&site=ehost-live.

Accessed 18 Aug. 2017.

Andrew D. Appleby was a Graduate Tax Scholar in the LL.M. in Taxation program at

Georgetown University Law Center in 2010. Prior to focusing on tax law, he was an associate in

the Energy Infrastructure, Climate, & Technology Group of a leading Atlanta-based law firm. He

has earned the following degrees: J.D. 2008, Wake Forest University School of Law; M.B.A.

2004, University of Massachusetts-Amherst; B.S. 2003, Florida State University. (“Andrew D.

Appleby.” Sutherland, Sutherland Asbill & Brennan LLP, n.d., us.eversheds-sutherland.com/

people/Andrew-D-Appleby. Accessed 29 July 2017. & “Andrew D. Appleby.” Martindale,

Martindale-Hubbell, n.d., martindale.com/new-york/new-york/andrew-d-appleby-44882691-a/.

Accessed 29 July 2017.)

Appleby determines that most of our country’s problems are a result of our addiction and

over-consumption of foreign oil. His major points for change revolve around national security,

climate change, and public health. He believes the solution to the problem would be to greatly

increase the tax on gasoline so that most consumers would literally be unable to afford it. This

would force the expansion of alternative energy solutions. Basically, he predicts that if the price

of gas were to be raised to $11/gal, everyone would drive a hybrid or electric car. He also shows

that new jobs could be created if the percentage of hybrid cars would increase. I can use the

article because it has a lot of powerful examples and statistics about hybrid cars and spending.

Appleby is a big hybrid car supporter. His theory seems so much different than the simple ones

explained in my other articles. They just argue that people should get hybrid cars, but Appleby

takes it a step further and suggests “making” people buy hybrids.

Ferenchik, Mark. “Study: Casino to revitalize West Side.” Columbus Dispatch, 14 July 2011,

1B. Nexis Uni, advance.lexis.com/api/permalink/b01c400e-6695-48af-a924-

271fdf1268c9/ ?context=2834161. Accessed 2 Aug. 2017.

Mark Ferenchik has been a reporter for The Columbus Dispatch since 1998. He graduated

from Kent State University in 1984 with a bachelor’s degree in journalism. His career began by

working as a county court reporter for The Medina County Gazette in Medina, Ohio. He also

continued his efforts as a county, city, and enterprise reporter for The Repository in Canton,

Ohio. Currently, his writing and reporting focuses on urban development, government issues and

sports writing. (“Mark Ferenchik.” linkedin.com, LinkedIn Coporation, n.d., linkedin.com/in/

mark-ferenchik-9351b57. Accessed 1 Aug. 2017.)

Ferenchik writes about the city’s proposals and efforts to expedite the construction

process of the casino development in Columbus. He details how the changing demographics of

the city’s west side will impact how new businesses are marketed to. For instance, he clarifies

that 26% of the people in the area are Latino and developers will have to carefully determine

how to market to them. Marketing, Ferenchick explains, will play a pivotal role for investors and

much attention will need to be given to the already vacant business community. One study

indicated that an increase in annual visitors would ultimately provide $450 million of revenue for

nearby businesses, restaurants and hotels. Ferenchick also reports that the decision to develop a

casino and other new businesses on the West Side will motivate land-developers into

constructing a multi-sport athletic center for AAU athletes, including basketball, volleyball,

indoor track, soccer and mixed martial-arts competitions. This article will be useful for my essay

because it gives insight on what city officials have in store for the west side of Columbus. This

will also provide valid information regarding surrounding business and the positive economic

outlook. Unlike some of my other articles— especially the one by Smithson—this article looks at

the casino as a very positive addition to the community.