Speech on Protecting and Preserving Our Marine Ecosystems Project

1. Please give me the Speech content/preparation outline.

2. In addition, please follow the speech and give me the speech delivery outline.

3. Reflection paper for the info speech should reflects on your strengths and opportunities for improvement from your in-class speech. Be sure to incorporate the concepts that I give you.The resources I will give it to you. How I felt during the speech: I was very nervous about saying something wrong. Therefore, I will look at my notecards very often, resulting in my eye contact is not very natural, and my body move is not very natural. I practiced for quite a while this time, so overall it went well.

MARINE ECOSYSTEMS
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Protecting and Preserving Our Marine Ecosystems
Name
Course
Instructor
Date
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Outline
Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 3
The Threat of Human Activities on Marine Ecosystems ………………………………………………………. 3
The Devastating Impacts of Climate Change ……………………………………………………………………… 5
The Sources and Impacts of Plastic Pollution……………………………………………………………………… 6
Recommendations for Marine Ecosystem Protection and Sustainability ………………………………… 7
Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 8
References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 9
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Introduction
Today, I stand before you to address a vital issue that concerns not only our oceans but
the lifeblood of our planet. Our oceans cover more than 70 percent of the earth’s surface and are
not only vast bodies of water but also an important part of life that sustains us all. Nowadays,
these waters lie a complex story of both breathtaking beauty and looming crisis. The Marine
environment has captivated explorers, artists, and scientists for centuries but now faces a host of
daunting challenges. These challenges threaten not only the organisms that call the ocean home
but also the ecosystems that protect the global climate and provide livelihoods for billions of
people.
In the next few minutes, we will embark on a journey to explore pressing Marine
environmental issues that demand our attention, compassion, and action. From the insidious
effects of plastic pollution to the delicate balance of coral reefs, from the rise of sea levels to the
silent suffering of Marine life, we will delve into these issues to better understand their causes,
consequences, and impacts. We will examine how human activities, driven by humanity’s infinite
demand for resources and ever-expanding footprint, have disrupted the delicate harmony of the
oceans. We will also uncover the intertwined clues of climate change, pollution,
overexploitation, and habitat destruction that can disrupt the rich Marine life that has evolved
over millions of years.
The Threat of Human Activities on Marine Ecosystems
Notably, human activities have a profound impact on marine ecosystems due to activities
such as overfishing, coastal development, industrial and agricultural pollution, and the emission
of greenhouse gases. Studies reveal that over 90% of the global oceans are exposed to a
MARINE ECOSYSTEMS
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significant threat of ocean acidification, rising sea temperatures, and deoxygenation due to
human activities (Gissi et al., 2021). Hence, the impact of human activities on marine ecosystems
is a matter of increasing concern due to its wide-ranging and detrimental consequences.
Overfishing occurs when the rate of harvesting aquatic organisms exceeds the natural rate
of reproduction. Research indicates that overfishing disrupts fish populations, alters food webs,
and reduces biodiversity, posing a serious threat to marine sustainability (Link, 2020). Similarly,
coastal development is a major cause of habitat destruction and alteration. Steven et al. (2020)
highlight that coastal development degrades critical marine habitats, such as wetlands and
mangroves, that provide breeding, nesting, and feeding grounds for thousands of aquatic species.
Hence, overfishing and coastal development are destructive human activities that disrupt the
balance of local ecosystems and produce cascading effects on the health, biodiversity, and
survival of adjacent marine environments.
Industrial and agricultural activities also take a toll on marine environments. Bashir et al.
(2020) discuss the threats of contaminating aquatic ecosystems, citing that pollution lowers the
water quality, directly harms marine life, and disrupts the entire ecosystem. As factories and
farms empty harmful chemicals, pesticides, heavy metals, and sewages into oceans, significant
public health concerns arise and marine life suffocates. Furthermore, the emission of greenhouse
gases causes substantial stress on marine ecosystems, leading to increased ocean temperatures,
the creation of ocean dead zones, disruption of fish migration patterns, and rampant coral
bleaching. Hence, industrialization and agricultural activities have far-reaching consequences on
human health and marine ecosystem sustainability, highlighting the urgent need for responsible
and sustainable practices.
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The Devastating Impacts of Climate Change
Besides human activities, climate change represents a significant threat to marine
ecosystems. The impact of climate change on the world’s oceans is a growing concern that
requires stringent mitigation and adaptation measures to safeguard the health and sustainability
of aquatic life. One of the most noticeable consequences of climate change in marine ecosystems
is the rise in sea temperatures. As greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) accumulate in
the atmosphere, they trap heat, leading to global warming. In turn, the increased heat results in
elevated sea surface temperatures, which have been linked to several ecological shifts and
challenges.
For instance, increased sea temperatures pose a substantial threat to coral reefs, some of
the most diverse and productive ecosystems on Earth. One such impact is coral bleaching, a
phenomenon where corals expel their symbiotic algae due to stress from higher temperatures.
This process can lead to coral mortality, impacting the entire ecosystem that depends on these
reefs. Gobler’s (2020) work on climate change and harmful algal blooms highlights how rising
sea temperatures create favorable conditions for harmful algal blooms, which in turn produce
toxins harmful to marine life and humans.
Moreover, climate change increases ocean acidification, a condition in which the pH
levels of seawater decrease due to the absorption of excess carbon dioxide (CO2) from the
atmosphere (Gissi et al., 2021). Ocean acidification has the potential to harm marine organisms,
especially those with calcium carbonate shells or skeletons, such as corals, mollusks, and some
plankton species. This situation can disrupt the marine food chain and impact the overall health
and biodiversity of ocean ecosystems.
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The Sources and Impacts of Plastic Pollution
Plastic pollution is one of the major and most hazardous pollutants affecting marine
ecosystems today. The presence of plastics in the world’s oceans has raised significant attention
due to its widespread distribution and adverse impacts on marine life and ecosystems. Plastic
pollution in marine environments originates from various sources, primarily land-based
activities. Improper disposal of plastics, including single-use items like bottles, bags, and
packaging materials, is a major contributor. These plastics find their way into rivers and
eventually the oceans through storm-water runoff and inadequate waste management practices
(Almroth & Eggert, 2019).
Furthermore, the breakdown of larger plastic debris into micro-plastics, plastic particles
less than 5mm in size, is another concerning source of contamination. These micro-plastics can
result from the degradation of larger plastic items in the environment, as well as from the flaking
micro-plastic particles from various products like clothing and personal care items (Amelia et al.,
2021).
The impacts of plastic pollution on marine ecosystems are extensive and multifaceted.
Marine species often mistake plastic debris for food, leading to ingestion. This can have
detrimental effects on these organisms, ranging from physical harm and blockages of their
digestive systems to the introduction of toxic chemicals into their bodies (Almroth & Eggert,
2019). The bioaccumulation of plastic-associated toxins in the food chain poses a significant risk
to human health when seafood contaminated with these toxins is consumed.
Moreover, plastics persist in the environment for extended periods, further exacerbating
their impact. In particular, microplastics are dangerous because they can accumulate in
sediments, be ingested by filter-feeding organisms, and travel long distances through ocean
MARINE ECOSYSTEMS
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currents, resulting in their widespread distribution. Hence, plastic pollution control measures
must be carefully formulated and implemented to reduce future plastic production and
consumption.
Recommendations for Marine Ecosystem Protection and Sustainability
Protecting and preserving the marine ecosystem from the negative impacts of human
activities, climate change, and plastic pollution requires collaboration, resource mobilization, and
a global commitment to sustainable practices. One crucial aspect of protecting marine
ecosystems is through sustainable fisheries management. Effective management strategies
include setting catch limits based on scientific assessments, implementing fishing quotas, and
reducing bycatch (Link, 2021). These measures have been proven to help restore and maintain
fish populations, which are vital to the health of marine ecosystems.
Another critical recommendation for preserving marine ecosystems is reducing carbon
emissions. Climate change, driven by carbon emissions, is a significant stressor on marine
environments. Ocean acidification and general rise in sea temperature are some of the
consequences of climate change that have adverse effects on marine life. Hence, it is imperative
to reduce carbon emissions by transitioning to renewable energy sources, increasing energy
efficiency, and implementing reforestation efforts (Gissi et al., 2021). Addressing the root cause
of climate change can limit the devastating impacts of climate change on marine ecosystems.
Similarly, mitigating plastic pollution requires the implementation of strict policies to
reduce plastic production, promote recycling and waste reduction, and minimize single-use
plastics. Public awareness campaigns can play a significant role in reducing plastic consumption
MARINE ECOSYSTEMS
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and encouraging responsible disposal. Furthermore, organized clean-up efforts can help mitigate
the impact of existing plastic waste in the oceans, ensuring the health of marine ecosystems.
Lastly, Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have been proven effective in conserving marine
biodiversity and protecting vulnerable species. Gobler (2020) and Almroth and Eggert (2019)
recommend the implementation of MPAs because they serve as sanctuaries for marine life by
limiting human activities, such as overfishing and destructive fishing practices. To safeguard
marine ecosystems, it is crucial to expand the global network of MPAs to include a variety of
ecosystems and habitats, including coral reefs, seagrass beds, and deep-sea environments. With
effective MPA management policies and regulations, governments, non-governmental
organizations, and the general public can effectively conserve marine biodiversity.
Conclusion
The state of our marine ecosystems demands immediate action to combat the negative
impacts of human activities, climate change, and plastic pollution. To protect and preserve these
vital ecosystems, we must implement evidence-based recommendations such as sustainable
fisheries management, carbon emissions reduction, plastic pollution mitigation, and the
expansion of Marine Protected Areas. Collaboration, resource mobilization, and a global
commitment to sustainability are crucial for safeguarding the health and vitality of our oceans,
which are not only vital to marine life but also to the well-being of our planet and future
generations.
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References
Amelia, T. S. M., Khalik, W. M. A. W. M., Ong, M. C., Shao, Y. T., Pan, H. J., & Bhubalan, K.
(2021). Marine microplastics as vectors of major ocean pollutants and its hazards to the
marine ecosystem and humans. Progress in Earth and Planetary Science, 8(1), 1-26.
Almroth, B. C., & Eggert, H. (2019). Marine plastic pollution: sources, impacts, and policy
issues. Review of environmental economics and policy.
Bashir, I., Lone, F. A., Bhat, R. A., Mir, S. A., Dar, Z. A., & Dar, S. A. (2020). Concerns and
threats of contamination on aquatic ecosystems. Bioremediation and biotechnology:
sustainable approaches to pollution degradation, 1-26.
Gissi, E., Manea, E., Mazaris, A. D., Fraschetti, S., Almpanidou, V., Bevilacqua, S., … &
Katsanevakis, S. (2021). A review of the combined effects of climate change and other
local human stressors on the marine environment. Science of the Total Environment, 755,
142564.
Gobler, C. J. (2020). Climate change and harmful algal blooms: insights and
perspective. Harmful algae, 91, 101731.
Joung, T. H., Kang, S. G., Lee, J. K., & Ahn, J. (2020). The IMO initial strategy for reducing
Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions, and its follow-up actions towards 2050. Journal of
International Maritime Safety, Environmental Affairs, and Shipping, 4(1), 1-7.
Link, J. S. (2021). Evidence of ecosystem overfishing in US large marine ecosystems. ICES
Journal of Marine Science, 78(9), 3176-3201.
Steven, A., Addo, K. A., Llewellyn, G., Ca, V. T., Boateng, I., Bustamante, R., … & Vozzo, M.
(2020). Coastal development: Resilience, restoration and infrastructure
requirements. World Resources Institute, Washington DC Available online:
MARINE ECOSYSTEMS
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www.oceanpanel.org/blue-papers/coastal-development-resilience-restoration-andinfrastructure-requirements.
Public Speaking: The Virtual Text
introduction to public speaking
Public Speaking: The Virtual Text
chapter 1
By Lisa Schreiber, Ph.D. and Morgan Hartranft
Millersville University, Millersville, PA
introduction
Humans’ ability to communicate
using formalized systems of language
sets us apart from other living creatures
on the Earth. Whether these language
conventions make us superior to other
creatures is debatable, but there is no
question that overall, the most
successful and most powerful people
over the centuries have mastered the
ability to communicate effectively. In
fact, the skill of speaking is so
important that it has been formally
taught for thousands of years (see
Chapter 2 “The Origins of Public
Speaking” by DeCaro).
The ironic feature of public speaking
is that while we recognize that it is an
important skill to have, many of us do
not like or want to give speeches. You
may be reading this book because it
was assigned to you in a class, or you
may be reading it because you have to
give a speech in your personal or
professional life. If you are reading
this book because you like public
speaking or you have a burning desire
to learn more about it, you’re in the
minority.
The good news about public
speaking is that although it may not be
on the top of the list of our favorite
activities, anyone can learn to give
effective presentations. You don’t have
to look like a Hollywood star and you
don’t have to use fancy words to be a
successful speaker. What is important
is that the audience understands you
and remembers what you have to say.
By learning and using the techniques
provided in this book, you will discover
how to create engaging speeches and
present them using your own delivery
style.
chapter objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be
able to:
1.
Articulate at least three
reasons why public
speaking skills are
important.
2. Describe the difference
between the linear and
the transactional model of
communication.
3. List, define, and give an
example of each of the
components of
communication.
4. Differentiate between the
major types of speeches
5. Identify the eleven core
public speaking
competencies.
6. Apply chapter concepts in
final questions and
activities.
The purpose of this chapter is to
familiarize readers with the basic
concepts of communication and public
speaking. The chapter begins with a
description of the personal,
professional, and public benefits of
learning more about public speaking.
Then the transactional model of
communication is introduced along
with the fundamental components of
the communication process. Next,
readers will learn about different types
of speeches and the occasions for
which they would be presented. The
chapter ends with an overview of
eleven primary public speaking
competencies.
chapter outline
 Introduction
 Benefits of Public Speaking
o Personal
o Professional
o Public
 Models of Communication
o Linear
o Transactional
 Elements of the Communication
Process
o Encoding and Decoding
o Communicator
o Message
o Channel
o Noise
o Worldview
o Context
 Types of Speeches
 Speaking Competencies
o Useful Topic
o Engaging Introduction
o Clear Organization
o Well-Supported Ideas
o Closure in Conclusion
o Clear and Vivid Language
o Suitable Vocal Expression
o Corresponding Nonverbals
o Adapted to the Audience
o Adept Use of Visual Aids
o Convincing Persuasion
 Conclusion
 Review Questions and Activities
 Glossary
 References
Wherever I go meeting the
public… spreading a message
of human values, spreading a
message of harmony, is the
most important thing.
~Dalai Lama
©2013 This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 United States License. To view a copy of this license, visit
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/us/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, 171 Second Street, Suite 300, San Francisco, California, 94105, USA.
PDF documents prepared by Lisa Schreiber. Document layout by Donna Painter Graphics.
Chapter 1 Introduction to Public Speaking
www.publicspeakingproject.org
fulfill essential roles in our family and
community.
Another great personal benefit of
public speaking is that it builds selfconfidence. It’s no surprise that
speaking in public is scary, but by
engaging in the activity you will build
self-confidence through the experience.
Chapter 11, “Speaking with
Confidence” by Grapsy ( in this book)
will give you advice on how to
minimize speech apprehension, and the
advice can be used in many other social
situations as well.
benefits of public speaking
According to the Association of
American Colleges and Universities,
there are a core set of skills that are
necessary “both for a globally engaged
democracy and for a dynamicinnovation fueled economy” (Rhodes,
2010, p. 10). In the category of
“Intellectual and practical skills”
public speaking is listed as one of
these core skills. This is not
particularly surprising given that
communication skills are critical for
intellectual development, career
trajectory, and civic engagement.
Public speaking is universally
applicable to all types of majors and
occupations and is seen by U.S.
employers as a critical employability
skill for job seekers (Rockler-Gladen,
2009; U.S. Department of Labor,
2000). No matter what your ambitions
and interests are, developing speaking
skills will benefit your personal,
professional, and public life.
personal
People don’t just give presentations
on the job and in classes. At times we
are called upon to give speeches in our
personal lives. It may be for a special
event, such as a toast at a wedding. We
may be asked to give a eulogy at a
funeral for a friend or loved one. As a
part of volunteer work, one may have
to introduce a guest speaker at an event
or present or accept an award for
service. Chapter 17, “Special Occasion
Speaking” by Scholl will help you to
prepare for these brief but important
speeches. Developing the skill to give
these types of speeches can help us to
Action is a great restorer and
builder of confidence.
Inaction is not only the result,
but the cause, of fear.
Perhaps the action you take
will be successful; perhaps
different action or
adjustments will have to
follow. But any action is
better than no action at all.
~ Norman Vincent Peale
professional
TV announcers, teachers, lawyers,
and entertainers must be able to speak
well, but most other professions require
or at the very least can benefit from the
skills found in public speaking.
It is believed 70% of jobs today
involve some form of public speaking
(Aras, 2012). With the recent
economic shift from manufacturing to
service careers, the ability to
communicate with others has become
crucial. Top CEOs advise that great
leaders must be able to communicate
ideas effectively, they must be able to
persuade, build support, negotiate and
speak effectively in public (Farrell,
2011). The chapters on “Informative
Speaking” and “Persuasive Speaking”
can help readers understand how to
write presentations that enhance their
leadership skills.
But before you even start a career,
you have to get a job. Effective
speaking skills make you more
attractive to employers, enhancing your
chances of securing employment and
later advancing within your career.
Employers, career counselors, and the
National Association of Colleges and
Employers (NACE) all list good
communication skills at the top of the
list of qualities sought in potential
employees. According to NACE’s
executive director, Marilyn Mackes, the
Job Outlook 2013 Report found that
employers are looking for people who
can communicate effectively (Koncz &
Allen, 2012). Monster.com advises,
“articulating thoughts clearly and
concisely will make a difference in
both a job interview and subsequent job
performance” (McKay, 2005).
public
Learning about public speaking will
allow you to participate in democracy
at its most basic level. Public speaking
is important in creating and sustaining a
society, which includes informed,
active participants. Even if you do not
plan to run for office, learning about
public speaking helps you to listen
more carefully to and critically evaluate
other’s speeches. In fact the “Listening
Effectively” and “Critical Thinking and
Reasoning” chapters in this book by
Goddu and Russ will help you to
develop those skills. Listening and
critical thinking allow you to
understand public dilemmas, form an
opinion about them, and participate in
resolving them. The progress of the
past century involving segregation,
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Chapter 1 Introduction to Public Speaking
www.publicspeakingproject.org
women’s rights and environmental
protection are the result of people
advancing new ideas and speaking out
to others to persuade them to adopt
changes.
models of communication
It should be clear by now that public
speaking happens all around us in many
segments of our lives. However, to
truly understand what is happening
within these presentations, we need to
take a step back and look at some of the
key components of the communication
process.
linear model of communication
The first theoretical model of
communication was proposed in 1949
by Shannon and Weaver for Bell
Laboratories (Shannon & Weaver,
1949). This three-part model was
intended to capture the radio and
television transmission process.
However it was later adapted to human
communication and is now known as
the linear model of communication.
The first part of the model is the
sender, and this is the person who is
speaking. The second part of the model
is the channel, which is the apparatus
for carrying the message (i.e., the
phone or T.V.). The third part of the
model is the receiver, and this is the
person who picks up the message. In
this model, communication is seen as a
one-way process of transmitting a
message from one person to another
person. This model can be found in
Figure 1.1.
If you think about situations when
you communicate with another person
face-to-face or when you give a speech,
you probably realize that this model is
inadequate – communication is much
more complicated than firing off a
message to others.
He who would learn to fly
one day must first learn to
stand and walk and run and
climb and dance; one cannot
fly into flying.
~ Friedrich Nietzsche
transactional model of
communication
Models of communication have
evolved significantly since Shannon
and Weaver first proposed their wellknown conceptual model over sixty
years ago. One of the most useful
models for understanding public
speaking is Barnlund’s (2008)
transactional model of communication.
In the transactional model,
communication is seen as an ongoing,
circular process. We are constantly
affecting and are affected by those we
communicate with. The transactional
model has a number of interdependent
processes and components, including
the encoding and decoding processes,
the communicator, the message, the
channel and noise. Although not
directly addressed in Barnlund’s (2008)
original transactional model,
participants’ worldviews and the
context also play an important role in
the communication process. See Figure
1.2 on the next page for an illustration.
elements of the
communication process
encoding and decoding
Encoding refers to the process of
taking an idea or mental image,
associating that image with words, and
then speaking those words in order to
convey a message. So, if you wanted
to explain to your aunt the directions to
your new apartment, you would picture
in your mind the landscape, streets and
buildings, and then you would select
the best words that describe the route
so your aunt could find you.
Decoding is the reverse process of
listening to words, thinking about
them, and turning those words into
mental images. If your aunt were
trying to find her way to your
apartment, she would listen to your
words, associate these words with
streets and landmarks that she knows,
and then she would form a mental map
of the way to get to you. Ramsey’s
“Using Language Well” (Chapter 10)
provides additional insight into the
encoding and decoding process.
communicator
The term communicator refers to all
of the people in the interaction or
speech setting. It is used instead of
sender and receiver, because when we
are communicating with other people
we are not only sending a message, we
are receiving messages from others
simultaneously. When we speak, we
observe others’ nonverbal behavior to
see if they understand us and we gauge
their emotional state. The information
we gain from these observations is
known as feedback. Over the
telephone, we listen to paralinguistic
cues, such as pitch, tone, volume and
fillers (i.e., “um,” “uh,” “er,” “like,”
and so on). This means that
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Chapter 1 Introduction to Public Speaking
communication is not a one-way
process. Even in a public speaking
situation, we watch and listen to
audience members’ responses. If
audience members are interested, agree,
and understand us, they may lean
forward in their seats, nod their heads,
have positive or neutral facial
expressions, and provide favorable
vocal cues (such as laughter, “That’s
right,” “Uh huh,” or “Amen!”). If
audience members are bored, disagree,
or are confused by our message, they
may be texting or looking away from
us, shake their heads, have unhappy or
confused expressions on their faces, or
present oppositional vocal cues (like
groans, “I don’t think so,” “That
doesn’t make sense,” or “You’re
crazy!”). Thus, communication is
always a transactional process – a give
and take of messages.
www.publicspeakingproject.org
message
The message involves those verbal
and nonverbal behaviors, enacted by
communicators, that are interpreted
with meaning by others. The verbal
portion of the message refers to the
words that we speak, while the
nonverbal portion includes our tone of
voice and other non-vocal components
such as personal appearance, posture,
gestures and body movements, eye
behavior, the way we use space, and
even the way that we smell. For
instance, the person who gets up to
speak wearing a nice suit will be
interpreted more positively than a
person giving the exact same speech
wearing sweats and a graphic t-shirt.
Or if a speaker tries to convince others
to donate to a charity that builds wells
in poor African villages using a
monotone voice, she will not be as
effective as the speaker who gives the
same speech but speaks with a solemn
tone of voice. If there is ever a conflict
between the verbal and the non-verbal
aspects of a message, people will
generally believe the nonverbal portion
of the message. To test this, tighten
your muscles, clench your fists at your
sides, pull your eye brows together,
purse your lips, and tell someone in a
harsh voice, “NO, I’m NOT angry!”
See if they believe your words or your
nonverbal behavior.
The message can also be intentional
or unintentional. When the message is
intentional, this means that we have an
image in our mind that we wish to
communicate to an audience or a
person in a conversation, and we can
successfully convey the image from our
mind to others’ minds with relative
accuracy. An unintentional message is
sent when the message that we wish to
convey is not the same as the message
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Chapter 1 Introduction to Public Speaking
the other person receives. Let’s say
you are returning from an outing with
your significant other and she or he
asks, “Did you have a good time?”
You did have a good time but are
distracted by a T.V. commercial when
asked, so you reply in a neutral tone,
“Sure, I had fun.” Your significant
other may interpret your apathetic tone
of voice and lack of eye contact to
mean that you did not enjoy the
evening, when in fact you actually did.
Thus as communicators, we cannot
always be sure that the message we
wish to communicate is interpreted as
we intended.
channel
The channel is very simply the
means through which the message
travels. In face-to-face communication
the channel involves all of our senses,
so the channel is what we see, hear,
touch, smell and perhaps what we taste.
When we’re communicating with
someone online, the channel is the
computer; when texting the channel is
the cell phone; and when watching a
movie on cable, the channel is the TV.
The channel can have a profound
impact on the way a message is
interpreted. Listening to a recording of
a speaker does not have the same
psychological impact as listening to the
same speech in person or watching that
www.publicspeakingproject.org
person on television. One famous
example of this is the 1960 televised
presidential debate between John F.
Kennedy and Richard Nixon.
According to History.com (2012), on
camera, Nixon looked away from the
camera at the reporters asking him
questions, he was sweating and pale, he
had facial hair stubble, and he wore a
grey suit that faded into the set
background. “Chicago mayor Richard
J. Daley reportedly said [of Nixon],
‘My God, they’ve embalmed him
before he even died” (History.com,
2012). Kennedy, on the other hand,
looked into the camera, was tanned,
wore a dark suit that made him stand
out from the background, and appeared
to be calm after spending the entire
weekend with aides practicing in a
hotel room. Most of those who
listened to the radio broadcast of the
debate felt that it was a tie or that
Nixon had won, while 70% of those
watching the televised debate felt that
Kennedy was the winner.
first type of noise is physiological
noise, and this refers to bodily
processes and states that interfere with
a message. For instance, if a speaker
has a headache or the flu, or if audience
members are hot or they’re hungry,
these conditions may interfere with
message accuracy. The second type of
noise is psychological noise.
Psychological noise refers to mental
states or emotional states that impede
message transmission or reception. For
example, if someone has just broken up
with a significant other, or if they’re
worried about their grandmother who is
in the hospital, or if they are thinking
about their shopping list, this may
interfere with communication processes
as well. The third type of noise is
actual physical noise, and this would
be simply the actual sound level in a
room. Loud music playing at a party, a
number of voices of people talking
excitedly, a lawnmower right outside
the window, or anything that is overly
loud will interfere with communication.
The last type of noise is cultural noise.
Cultural noise refers to message
interference that results from
differences in peoples’ worldviews.
Worldview is discussed in more detail
below, but suffice it to say that the
greater the difference in worldview, the
more difficult it is to understand one
another and communicate effectively.
worldview
Most people don’t give a lot of
thought to the communication process.
In the majority of our interactions with
others, we are operating on automatic
pilot. Although the encoding and
decoding process may appear to be
noise
The next aspect of the model of
communication is noise. Noise refers
to anything that interferes with
message transmission or reception
(i.e., getting the image from your
head into others’ heads). There are
several different types of noise. The
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fairly straightforward, it is actually
much more complicated than it seems.
The reason for this is because we all
have different worldviews. Worldview
is the overall framework through which
an individual sees, thinks about, and
interprets the world and interacts with
it. There are five core components to
our worldview.
1. Epistemology is the way that we
acquire knowledge and/or what counts
as knowledge. Think about the process
of conducting research. Thirty years
ago, to find a series of facts one had to
use a card catalogue and scour the
library stacks for books. Now
researchers can access thousands of
pages of information via their computer
from the comfort of their own home.
Epistemology is linked to public
speaking because it governs audience
members’ preferred learning styles and
who or what they consider to be
credible sources.
2. Ontology refers to our belief
system, how we see the nature of
reality or what we see as true or false.
We may (or may not) believe in aliens
from outer space, that butter is bad for
you, that the Steelers will win the
Superbowl, or that humans will be
extinct in 200 years. Speech writers
should be careful not to presume that
audience members share the same
beliefs. If a speaker claims that illness
can be aided with prayer, but several
people in the audience are atheists, at
best the speaker has lost credibility and
at worst these audience members could
be offended.
3. Axiology represents our value
system, or what we see as right or
wrong, good or bad, and fair or unfair.
www.publicspeakingproject.org
One of the ways that you can tell what
people value is to ask them what their
goals are, or to ask them what qualities
they look for in a life partner. Our
values represent the things that we hope
for –they do not represent reality.
Values can have an impact on multiple
levels of the public speaking process,
but in particular values impact speaker
credibility and effectiveness in
persuasion. For instance, some cultures
value modest dress in women, so a
female speaker wearing a sleeveless
blouse while speaking could cause her
to lose credibility with some audience
members. Or if audience members
value the freedom to bear arms over the
benefits of government regulation, a
speaker will have a difficult time
convincing these audience members to
vote for stricter gun control legislation.
It is always good to explore
the stuff you don’t agree with,
to try and understand a
different lifestyle or foreign
worldview. I like to be
challenged in that way, and
always end up learning
something I didn’t know.
~ Laura Linney
4. Cosmology signifies the way that
we see our relationship to the universe
and to other people. Cosmology
dictates our view of power
relationships and may involve our
religious or spiritual beliefs.
Controversial speech topics (like
universal health care and the death
penalty) are often related to this aspect
of worldview as we must consider our
responsibilities to other human beings
and our power to influence them.
Interestingly, cosmology would also
play a role in such logistical points as
who is allowed to speak, the order of
speakers on a schedule (e.g., from most
to least important), the amount of time
a speaker has to speak, the seating
arrangement on the dais, and who gets
the front seats in the audience.
5. Praxeology denotes our preferred
method of completing everyday tasks
or our approach to solving problems.
Some speech writers may begin
working on their outlines as soon as
they know they will need to give a
speech, while others may wait until a
few days before their speech to begin
preparing (we do not recommend this
approach). Praxeology may also have
an impact on a speaker’s preference of
delivery style, methods of arranging
main points, and choice of slideware
(i.e., Power Point versus Prezi).
It is important to understand
worldview because it has a profound
impact on the encoding and decoding
process, and consequently on our
ability to be understood by others. Try
this simple experiment. Ask two or
three people to silently imagine a dog
while you imagine a dog at the same
time. “Dog” is a very concrete word
(a word that describes a tangible object
that can be perceived through the
senses), and it is one of the first words
children in the United States learn in
school. Wait a few seconds and then
ask each person what type of dog they
were thinking of. Was it a Chihuahua?
A greyhound? Golden retriever?
Rottweiler? Or some other dog? Most
likely each person you asked had a
different image in his or her mind than
you had in yours. This is our worldview
at work.
To further illustrate, you may tell a
co-worker, “I can’t wait to go home
this weekend – we are having lasagna!”
Seems like a fairly clear-cut statement,
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assume your listener will understand
you. It takes hard work to make
yourself understood by an audience.
Context is worth 80 IQ
points.
~ Alan Kay
context
doesn’t it? Unfortunately, it is not.
While “lasagna” is also a concrete
word, our worldviews cause us to
interpret each word in the statement
differently. Where is “home?” Who is
making the meal? What ingredients
will be used in the lasagna? Is this dish
eaten as a regular meal or for a special
occasion? Will there be leftovers? Are
friends invited? Since everyone who
has eaten lasagna has had a different
experience of the cuisine, we all
acquire a different image in our mind
when we hear the statement “…we are
having lasagna!”
Complicating matters is the fact that
the more abstract the word becomes,
the more room there is for
interpretation. Abstract words (words
that refer to ideas or concepts that are
removed from material reality) like
“peace,” “love,” “immoral,” “justice,”
“freedom,” “success,” and “honor” can
have a number of different meanings;
each of which is predicated on one’s
worldview. Communicators have their
own unique worldviews that shape both
the encoding and decoding processes,
which means that we can never be
completely understood by another
person. People from the Midwest may
call carbonated beverages “pop,” while
those from the east coast may say
“soda,” and those from Georgia may
say “coke.” Even when simple terms
are used like “oak tree” or “fire
hydrant,” each listener will form a
different mental image when decoding
the message. Never take
communication for granted, and never
The last element of the
communication process is the context
in which the speech or interaction takes
place. In the 1980’s context was taught
as the actual physical setting where
communication occurred, such as in a
place of worship, an apartment, a
workplace, a noisy restaurant, or a
grocery store. People communicate
differently in each one of these places
as there are unwritten rules of
communication (called norms) that
govern these settings. More recently
the concept of context has evolved and
expanded to include the type of
relationships we have with others and
the communicative rules that govern
those relationships. So you do not
speak the same way to your best friend
as you do to a small child, your parent,
your boss, your doctor or a police
officer. And you may speak to your
best friend differently in your
apartment than you do in your parents’
home, and your communication may
also change when you are both out with
friends on the weekend. In sum, the
context refers to the norms that govern
communication in different situations
and relationships.
types of speeches and
speaking occasions
There are three general purposes for
speaking in public. The general
purpose of a speech is usually
determined by the occasion in which
the speech will be presented. The first
general purpose is to inform your
audience. In an informative speech, the
presenter will share information about a
particular person, place, object,
process, concept, or issue by defining,
describing, or explaining. Occasions
for which an informative speech would
be presented include a report presented
to coworkers, a teacher presenting
information to his or her class, and a
training session for a job. The second
purpose for public speaking is to
persuade. In a persuasive speech, the
presenter will attempt to reinforce or
change their audiences’ beliefs,
attitudes, feelings, or values. Several
occasions where persuasion is used
include a sales pitch to potential
customers, a politician’s campaign
speech, or a debate during a public
forum. The last general purpose is to
commemorate or entertain. These types
of speeches often strengthen the bonds
between audience members from
recalling a shared experience or intend
to amuse audiences through humor,
stories, or illustrations. Examples of
this purpose include a toast, such as a
best man’s speech at a wedding
reception; a eulogy to praise the dead; a
commencement speech at graduation;
or presenting an award. It is important
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to note that these general purposes may
overlap one another. One might wish to
use some forms of entertainment while
informing or persuading his or her
audience.
A desire presupposes the
possibility of action to
achieve it; action
presupposes a goal which is
worth achieving.
~ Ayn Rand
speaking competencies
We assume you are reading this
book or chapter because you wish to
improve your speaking skills – a
worthy goal. As Ayn Rand alludes to
in her quote, a desire to succeed is the
first step in achieving this objective.
Nevertheless, you cannot hit a target
unless you know what it is. Thus, the
final portion of this chapter is devoted
to an overview of eleven speaking
competencies which we consider to be
the standards for evaluating a variety of
presentations at every level of mastery.
These are based on the Public Speaking
Competence Rubric [PSCR] (Schreiber,
Paul & Shibley, 2012). A complete
copy of the rubric can be found at
http://www.publicspeakingproject.org/
activities.html.
www.publicspeakingproject.org
2. engaging introduction
To formulate an introduction that
orients the audience to the topic and
the speaker is the second speaking
competency. An advanced speaker
writes an introduction that contains an
excellent attention-getter. She firmly
establishes her credibility. She
provides a sound orientation to the
topic, states her thesis clearly, and
previews her points in a cogent and
memorable way. For the beginning
speaker, her attention-getter is
mundane and she somewhat develops
her credibility. Her thesis is
awkwardly composed and she provides
little direction for the audience. The
ineffective speaker has no opening
technique, no credibility statement and
provides no background on the topic.
In addition she has no thesis statement
and no preview of her points.
Don’t leave inferences to be
drawn when evidence can be
presented.
~ Richard Wright
4. well-supported ideas
Fourth on the list of speaking
competencies is to locate, synthesize,
and employ compelling supporting
materials. In the advanced speaker’s
speech, her key points are well
supported with a variety of credible
materials, and her sources provide
excellent support for her thesis. In
addition, all of her sources are clearly
cited. A beginning speaker has points
that are generally supported with a fair
mix of materials. Only some of her
evidence supports her thesis, and her
source citations need to be clarified.
An ineffective speaker gives a speech
with no supporting materials or no
source citations.
5. closure in conclusion
1. useful topic
The first speaking competency is to
select a topic that is appropriate to the
audience and the occasion. An
advanced speaker selects a worthwhile
topic that engages the audience. His
topic also presents the audience with
new information that they did not know
before the speech. A beginning
speaker selects a topic that lacks
originality or is out of date. His topic
provides no new information to the
audience. An ineffective speaker may
give a speech in which a single topic
cannot be deduced by the audience.
are somewhat organized, but the
content of these points may overlap.
Transitions may also be present in his
speech, but they are not particularly
effective. In the ineffective speaker’s
speech, there is no clear organizational
pattern, there are no transitions, and it
sounds as if the information is
randomly presented.
3. clear organization
Competency three is to use an
effective organizational pattern. An
advanced speaker is very well
organized and delivers a speech with
clear main points. His points are
mutually exclusive and directly related
to the thesis. Further, he employs
effective transitions and signposts to
help the speech flow well. The
beginning speaker has main points that
The fifth speaking competency is to
develop a conclusion that reinforces
the thesis and provides psychological
closure. The advanced speaker
provides a clear and memorable
summary of his points, and he refers
back to the thesis or big picture. His
speech also ends with a strong clincher
or call to action. A beginning speaker
provides some summary of his points,
but there is no clear reference back to
his thesis. The closing technique of his
speech can also be strengthened. In an
ineffective speaker’s speech, there is no
conclusion. His speech ends abruptly
and without closure.
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8. corresponding nonverbals
Eighth on the list of competencies is
to demonstrate nonverbal behavior that
supports the verbal message. An
advanced speaker has posture, gestures,
facial expression and eye contact that
are natural, well developed, and display
high levels of poise and confidence.
Some reliance on notes is seen with the
beginning speaker, but she has
adequate eye contact. She also
generally avoids distracting
mannerisms. The ineffective speaker
usually looks down and avoids eye
contact. She has nervous gestures and
other nonverbal behaviors that distract
from or contradict the message.
6. clear and vivid language
To demonstrate a careful choice of
words is the sixth speaking
competency. An advanced speaker’s
language is exceptionally clear,
imaginative and vivid. Her language is
also completely free from bias,
grammatical errors and inappropriate
usage. The beginning speaker selects
language that is adequate to make her
point. She has some errors in grammar
and occasionally uses slang, jargon or
awkward sentence structure. The
ineffective speaker has many errors in
her grammar and syntax. She also
mispronounces words and extensively
uses slang, jargon, and/or sexist or
racist terms.
Body language is a very
powerful tool. We had body
language before we had
speech, and apparently, 80%
of what you understand in a
conversation is read through
the body, not the words.
~ Deborah Bull
9. adapted to the audience
The ninth speaking competency is to
successfully adapt the presentation to
the audience. The advanced speaker
shows how information is important to
audience members, and his speech is
tailored to their beliefs, values and
attitudes. He may also make allusions
to culturally shared experiences. A
beginning speaker assumes but does
not articulate the importance of the
topic. His presentation is minimally
adapted to the audience, and some of
the ideas presented in the speech are
removed from the audience’s frame of
reference or experiences. An
ineffective speaker’s speech is contrary
to the audience’s beliefs, values and
attitudes. His message may be generic
or canned and no attempt is made to
establish common ground.
10. adept use of visual aids
To skillfully make use of visual aids
is the tenth competency. Exceptional
explanation and presentation of visual
aids is characteristic of the advanced
speaker. Her speech has visuals that
provide powerful insight into the
speech topic, and her visuals are of
high professional quality. The
beginning speaker’s visual aids are
generally well developed and
explained, although there may be minor
errors present in the visuals. An
ineffective speaker uses visual aids that
distract from her speech. Her visuals
may not be relevant, or her visuals may
be of poor professional quality.
7. suitable vocal expression
Competency number seven is to
effectively use vocal expression and
paralanguage to engage the audience.
Excellent use of vocal variation,
intensity and pacing are characteristics
of the advanced speaker. His vocal
expression is also natural and
enthusiastic, and he avoids fillers.
Some vocal variation is evident in the
beginning speaker’s speech. He also
enunciates clearly, speaks audibly, and
generally avoids fillers (e.g., “um,”
“uh,” “like,” etc.). An ineffective
speaker is inaudible, enunciates poorly,
and speaks in a monotone voice. His
speech also has poor pacing, and he
distracts listeners with fillers.
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11. convincing persuasion
The eleventh and final speaking
competency is to construct an effectual
persuasive message with credible
evidence and sound reasoning. An
advanced speaker articulates the
problem and solution in a clear,
compelling manner. He supports his
claims with powerful and credible
evidence while completely avoiding
reasoning fallacies. His speech also
contains a memorable call to action. In
the beginning speaker’s speech, the
problem and solution are evident, and
most claims are supported with
evidence. He also has generally sound
reasoning and a recognizable call to
action. For the ineffective speaker, the
problem and/or solution are not
defined. His claims are not supported
with evidence, his speech contains poor
reasoning, and there is no call to action.
Readers should note that the
competencies listed above are not all
inclusive. Ultimately one must adjust,
expand, and apply these competencies
as best fits the requirements of the
speaking situation. But they do provide
a starting point for new or less
experienced speakers to begin to
understand all of the interrelated
components of a speech.
Being ignorant is not so
much a shame, as being
unwilling to learn.
~ Benjamin Franklin
conclusion
Our capacity to communicate
through systems of language
differentiates us from other species, but
the use of that language to
communicate effectively is actually
harder than anticipated, particularly in
front of an audience. Fortunately, by
reading this book, you can learn the
skills required to communicate more
effectively one-on-one and in a
speaking situation.
The speeches you present will be
given in a particular context. In your
role as communicator, you will encode
and deliver a message which will then
be decoded by audience members (also
communicators). At the same time you
are speaking, you will be receiving
verbal and nonverbal feedback from the
audience. The way that the message is
decoded will depend entirely on the
amount of noise interfering with the
message as well as the worldviews of
audience members.
Every new speaker should work to
become skilled at the eleven core
public speaking competencies. These
competencies include: selecting a
useful topic, writing an engaging
introduction, organizing the points of
the speech, finding effective supporting
materials for the points, adding a
conclusion that provides closure, using
clear and vivid language, making sure
that one’s vocal expression corresponds
to the goals of the speech, using
nonverbals that complement the
message, adapting the message to one’s
audience, using visual aids effectively,
and using credible evidence and sound
reasoning in persuasive messages.
Each one of the competencies just
listed is covered in depth in one or
more chapters in this book.
The authors of this textbook hope
that readers will find the chapters
useful in developing their own
communication competence. Whether
you are new to giving presentations, or
a more experienced speaker, it is
important to remember that the best
way to improve your public speaking
skills is through preparation and
practice. Although it may take time to
learn effective speaking skills, the
effort is well worth the benefits you
will reap in your personal, professional,
and public life.
An effective speaker knows
that the success or failure of
his talk is not for him to
decide — it will be decided in
the minds and hearts of his
hearers.
~Dale Carnegie
.
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review questions and activities
review questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
What are the personal, professional and public benefits of enhancing your public speaking skills?
What is the difference between the linear and transactional model of communication?
Define and give an original example of each of the elements of the communication process.
Which of the elements of the communication process do you think has the greatest impact on the way a message
is interpreted. Explain.
5. What are the three types of speeches? For each of the three types of speeches, give two examples of an occasion
or situation in which that type of speech might be given.
6. List the eleven speaking competencies. For each competency listed, describe the differences between the
advanced speaker and the inexperienced speaker.
activities
1. Working in groups of 3 – 5, generate a list of the characteristics of ineffective speakers you have seen. Next, generate
a list of the characteristics of the effective speakers you have seen. What three qualities do you believe are most
important to be a successful speaker? Explain.
2. Locate a speech on YouTube. While watching the speech, identify the strengths and weaknesses of the speaker’s
content and delivery? What three things could the speaker improve on? What three things did you like about the
speaker? If you were to deliver the speech, how would you do things differently?
3. Locate a copy of the Public Speaking Competence Rubric at http://www.publicspeakingproject.org/activities.html.
Read through each of the levels of each of the competencies, and try to determine what your level of skill is for each
of the speaking competencies. If you are able, have a friend or colleague watch one of your speeches and ask him or
her to evaluate your level of skill for each of the competencies. Compare your responses to see how much
correspondence there is between your responses and the evaluator’s responses. In what areas are you strongest? What
do you need to improve upon?
glossary
Abstract Word
Words that refer to ideas or
concepts that are removed from
material reality.
Axiology
A part of worldview; refers to an
individual or group’s value
system.
Channel
The means through which the
message travels.
Communicator
The people in the interaction or
speech setting who encode and
decode messages simultaneously.
Concrete Word
A word that describes a tangible
object that can be perceived
through the senses.
Context
The communication rules that
govern different physical settings
and/or different types of
relationships.
Cosmology
A part of worldview; refers to the
way individuals and groups see
themselves in relation to other
people and their view of their
place in the universe.
Cultural Noise
Differences in worldview that
cause message interference.
Decoding
The process of listening to words
and interpreting the words so they
are associated with a mental
image.
Encoding
The process of taking a mental
image, associating the image with
words, and then speaking those
words.
Epistemology
A part of worldview; refers to the
way an individual or group
acquires knowledge or what
counts as knowledge.
Listening
The psychological process of
interpreting and making sense of
the messages we receive.
Message
The words, nonverbal behavior,
or other signals transmitted from
one person to another.
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Noise
Any thing that interferes with the
message transmission or the
encoding and decoding process.
Nonverbal Behavior
All of the messages we send –except for the words we say. Can
include appearance, eye behavior,
kinesics (body movement),
proxemics (use of space), touch,
time, and smell.
Norms
The verbal and nonverbal rules
(usually unspoken) that govern
communicative behavior.
Ontology
A part of worldview; refers to an
individual’s or group’s belief
system.
Praxeology
A part of worldview; refers to the
way an individual or group goes
about tasks or solving problems.
Psychological Noise
Message interference that results
from disturbed or excited mental
states.
Physiological Noise
Message interference that results
from bodily discomfort.
Aras, K. (2012). The nuts and bolts of
public speaking: Practical tools for
powerful presentations. Retrieved
from http://www.thecommuni
cationfactory.com/seminars/skills/Pu
blicSpeaking.php
http://www.history.com/topics/kenne
dy-nixon-debates
Barnlund, D. C. (2008). A transactional
model of communication. In. C. D.
Mortensen (Eds.), Communication
theory (2nd Ed), pp. 47-57. New
Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction.
Farrell, R. (2011). Soft skills all great
leaders should have. CareerBuilder.
http://www.
careerbuilder.com/Article/CB-2335Leadership-Management-Soft-skillsall-great-leaders-should-have/
History.com. (2012). The KennedyNixon Debates. History.com.
Retrieved from
p. 1 The Dali Lama
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Dalai-Lama-talking-to-KD.jpg By
Wakan Foundation for the Arts
p. 2 Ronsenbaum talking to woman
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Michael_Rosenbaum_(4995506953).jpg
By Vagueonthehow
p. 2 Alice Walker
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Alice_Walker_(cropped)1.jpg By
Virginia Debolt
p. 5 The Kennedy / Nixon Debate 1960
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kenned
y_Nixon_Debat_(1960).jpg By the
National Park Service
references
Koncz, A. and Allen, C. (2012).
Employers look for communication
skills, ability to work in a team in
new college grads.
www.naceweb.org/pressreleases/.
McKay, J. (2005). Employers complain
about communication skills.
Pittsburgh Post Gazette.
Rhodes, T. (Ed.) (2010). Assessing
outcomes and improving
achievement: Tips and tools for
using rubrics. Washington D. C.:
Association of American Colleges
and Universities.
Rockler-Gladen, N. (2009, March 21).
Job skills that every college student
needs: Writing, speaking,
professionalism, and other important
photo credits
p. 6 FEMA worker talking to woman
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/co
mmons/1/17/FEMA_-_32747__FEMA_Community_Relations_worker_
talking_to_a_Ohio_resident.jpg By John
Ficara / FEMA
p. 6 Superfans
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
NFL_Superfans.jpg
By HMJD02
p. 7 Hand cyclists at Warrior Games
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Flickr_-_The_U.S._Army__Talking_technique.jpg By U.S. Army
Physical Noise
Message interference that results
when the noise level (as
measured in decibels) makes it
difficult to hear a message.
Public Speaking
The act of delivering a speech in
front of a live audience.
Worldview
The overall framework through
which an individual sees, thinks
about, and interprets the world
and interacts with it.
knowledge. Suite 101.com.
Retrieved from
http://studyskills.suite101.com/articl
e.cfm/job_skills_that_every_college
_student_needs
Schreiber, L., Paul, G. & Shibley, L. R.
(2012). The development and test of
the Public Speaking Competence
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Shannon, C. E., & Weaver, W. (1949).
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U. S. Department of Labor (2000). Skills
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p. 9 Reasons not to like public speaking
http://www.flickr.com/photos/codepo8/4
348896264/
by Christian Heilmann
p. 9 Woman drawing
http://www.flickr.com/photos/jonnygolds
tein/3958940167/sizes/m/in/photostream/
by Jonny Goldstein
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listening effectively
Public Speaking: The Virtual Text
chapter 4
By Jenn Q. Goddu, M.A.
Queens University of Charlotte, Charlotte, NC
introduction
“You’re not listening!” An unhappy
teen shouts this at a concerned parent.
A frustrated parent yells this as a
toddler runs through a parking lot. A
teacher says it while flicking the
overheard lights on and off, trying to
get her unruly students to heed her. A
woman offers these three words as a
parting shot before hanging up on her
significant other. A man complains of
this to his spouse during a couple’s
counseling session. We can imagine all
these scenarios and more; all of them
rooted in a speaker wondering if his or
her audience is truly listening.
Public speaking requires an audience
to hear. Otherwise it’s private
speaking, and anyone overhearing you
might wonder if you’ve lost your wits.
What makes public speaking truly
effective is when the audience hears
and listens. You might think the two
are synonymous. But they aren’t, as
you will soon understand. In a classic
listening text, Adler (1983) notes,
“How utterly amazing is the general
assumption that the ability to listen well
is a natural gift for which no training is
required” (p. 5). Since listening
requires great effort, this chapter offers
the skills needed to listen effectively.
chapter objectives
After studying this module, you should be able
to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
explain the difference
between listening and
hearing
understand the value of
listening
identify the three attributes
of active listeners
recognize barriers to
effective listening
employ strategies to
engage listeners
provide constructive
feedback as a listener
Developing your listening skills can
have applications throughout your
educational, personal, and professional
lives. You will begin by examining the
difference between hearing and
listening. This module will also help
you understand your role as a listener,
not only in a public speaking class, but
also in the world. You’ll read about
attributes of an active listener, barriers
to listening, and strategies to listen
better. Finally, building on valuable
lessons regarding listening, this chapter
concludes with suggestions public
speakers can use to encourage
audiences to listen more attentively.
We have two ears and one
tongue so that we would
listen more and talk less.
~ Diogenes
chapter outline
 Introduction
 Hearing Versus Listening
 The Value of Listening
o Academic Benefits
o Professional Benefits
o Personal Benefits
 Three A’s of Active Listening
o Attention
o Attitude
o Adjustment
 Barriers to Effective Listening
o Anticipating
o Judging
o Reacting Emotionally
 Strategies to Enhance Listening
o Keep an Open Mind
o Identify Distractions
o Come Prepared
o Take Notes
 Providing Feedback to
Speakers
o Non-verbal Feedback
o Verbal Feedback
 Encouraging Effective Listening
o Make your Listeners Care
o Cue Your Listeners
o Convince Them to Engage
 Conclusion
 Review Questions and Activities
 Glossary
 References
 Appendix A: Listening Profile
hearing versus listening
A mother takes her four-year-old to
the pediatrician reporting she’s worried
about the girl’s hearing. The doctor
runs through a battery of tests, checks
in the girl’s ears to be sure everything
looks good, and makes notes in the
child’s folder. Then, she takes the
mother by the arm. They move
together to the far end of the room,
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Chapter 4 Listening Effectively
behind the girl. The doctor whispers in
a low voice to the concerned parent:
“Everything looks fine. But, she’s been
through a lot of tests today. You might
want to take her for ice cream after this
as a reward.” The daughter jerks her
head around, a huge grin on her face,
“Oh, please, Mommy! I love ice
cream!” The doctor, speaking now at a
regular volume, reports, “As I said, I
don’t think there’s any problem with
her hearing, but she may not always be
choosing to listen.”
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a noise downstairs, an age-old selfpreservation response is kicking in.
You were asleep. You weren’t
listening for the noise – unless perhaps
you are a parent of a teenager out past
curfew – but you hear it. Hearing is
unintentional, whereas listening (by
contrast) requires you to pay conscious
attention. Our bodies hear, but we need
to employ intentional effort to actually
listen.
event, attending a debate, or enduring a
salesperson touting the benefits of
various brands of a product, we engage
in critical listening. This requires us to
be attentive to key points that influence
or confirm our judgments. When we
are focused on gaining information
whether from a teacher in a classroom
setting, or a pastor at church, we are
engaging in informational listening
(Ireland, 2011).
We regularly engage in several
different types of listening. When we
are tuning our attention to a song we
like, or a poetry reading, or actors in a
play, or sitcom antics on television, we
are listening for pleasure, also known
as appreciative listening. When we
are listening to a friend or family
member, building our relationship with
another through offering support and
showing empathy for her feelings in the
situation she is discussing, we are
engaged in relational listening.
Therapists, counselors, and conflict
mediators are trained in another level
known as empathetic or therapeutic
listening. When we are at a political
Yet, despite all these variations,
Nichols (1995) called listening a “lost
art.” The ease of sitting passively
without really listening is well known
to anyone who has sat in a boring class
with a professor droning on about the
Napoleonic wars or proper pain
medication regimens for patients
allergic to painkillers. You hear the
words the professor is saying, while
you check Facebook on your phone
under the desk. Yet, when the exam
question features an analysis of
Napoleon’s downfall or a screaming
patient fatally allergic to codeine you
realize you didn’t actually listen.
Trying to recall what you heard is a
Hearing is something most everyone
does without even trying. It is a
physiological response to sound waves
moving through the air at up to 760
miles per hour. First, we receive the
sound in our ears. The wave of sound
causes our eardrums to vibrate, which
engages our brain to begin processing.
The sound is then transformed into
nerve impulses so that we can perceive
the sound in our brains. Our auditory
cortex recognizes a sound has been
heard and begins to process the sound
by matching it to previously
encountered sounds in a process known
as auditory association (Brownell,
1996). Hearing has kept our species
alive for centuries. When you are
asleep but wake in a panic having heard
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challenge, because without your
attention and intention to remember,
the information is lost in the caverns of
your cranium.
effectively in a team meeting.
Ferrari (2012) identifies listening as
the “most critical business skill of all.”
He notes, “listening can well be the
difference between profit and loss,
between success and failure, between a
long career and a short one” (p. 2).
Listening is one of the first skills
infants gain, using it to acquire
language and learn to communicate
with their parents. Bommelje (2011)
suggests listening is the activity we do
most in life, second only to breathing.
Nevertheless, the skill is seldom taught.
personal benefits
the value of listening
Listening is a critical skill. The
strategies endorsed in this chapter can
help you to be a more attentive listener
in any situation.
academic benefits
Bommelje, Houston, and Smither
(2003) studied effective listening
among 125 college students and found
a strong link between effective
listening and school success,
supporting previous research in the
field linking listening skills to grade
point average. This finding is
unsurprising as the better you listen
while in class, the better prepared you
will be for your assignments and
exams. It is quite simple really. When
students listen, they catch the
instructions, pointers, feedback, and
hints they can use to make the
assignment better or get a better score
on the test.
Learning is a result of
listening, which in turn leads
to even better listening and
attentiveness to the other
person.
~ Alice Miller
professional benefits
Connecting listening skills to better
leadership, Hoppe (2006) lists many
professional advantages of active
listening, indicating that it helps us:
better understand and make
connections between ideas and
information; change perspectives and
challenge assumptions; empathize and
show respect or appreciation, which
can enhance our relationships; and
build self-esteem. When people aren’t
listening, it becomes much more
difficult to get things done effectively
and trust is broken while fostering
resentments. Bell and Mejer (2011),
identifying poor listening as a “silent
killer of productivity and profit,” state
change becomes extremely difficult to
implement in a work environment
when people are not listening.
Effective listening can also help you
to make a better impression on
employers. This can begin at the
interview. You really want the job, but
you are really nervous. As a result, you
are having trouble paying attention to
what the CEO of the company is saying
in your final interview. She asks you if
you have any questions, and you ask
something you were wondering about
in the elevator on the way up to this
penthouse office. You’re unlikely to
get the job if you ask something she’s
just talked about. Even if you,
somehow, convince her to hire you,
you will make little progress at the firm
if your supervisors often have to tell
you things again, or you make
decisions that cost the company in lost
profits because you weren’t listening
If listening is done well, the
communication loop is effectively
completed between speaker and
receiver. The speaker shares a message
with the receiver, having selected a
particular method to communicate that
message. The receiver aims to interpret
the message and share understanding of
the message with the speaker.
Communication effectiveness is
determined by the level of shared
interpretation of the message reached
through listener response and feedback.
When done successfully, the loop is
complete, and both sender and receiver
feel connected. The active listener who
employs the positive attributes detailed
in this chapter is more likely to be
better liked, in turn increasing her selfesteem. She is also likely to be better
able to reduce tension in situations and
resolve conflict (Wobser, 2004). After
all, the symbols for ears, eyes,
undivided attention, and heart comprise
the Chinese character for “to listen”
(McFerran, 2009, p. G1). Truly
listening to the words of a speaker is
sure to make a positive difference in
your interactions whether they are
academic, professional, or personal.
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and mentally summarize them
(Nichols, 1957).
the three A’s of active
listening
Effective listening is about selfawareness. You must pay attention to
whether or not you are only hearing,
passively listening, or actively
engaging. Effective listening requires
concentration and a focused effort that
is known as active listening. Active
listening can be broken down into three
main elements.
Know how to listen, and you
will profit even from those
who talk badly.
~ Plutarch
Hoppe (2006) advises active
listening is really a state of mind
requiring us to choose to focus on the
moment, being present and attentive
while disregarding any of our anxieties
of the day. He suggests listeners
prepare themselves for active attention
by creating a listening reminder. This
might be to write “Listen” at the top of
a page in front of you in a meeting.
While reading a book, or having a
discussion with an individual, you can
go back and re-read or ask a question to
clarify a point. This is not always true
when listening. Listening is of the
moment, and we often only get to hear
the speaker’s words once. The key
then is for the listener to quickly
ascertain the speaker’s central premise
or controlling idea. Once this is done,
it becomes easier for the listener to
discern what is most important. Of
course, distinguishing the speaker’s
primary goal, his main points, and the
structure of the speech are all easier
when the listener is able to listen with
an open mind.
attention
We know now that attention is the
fundamental difference between
hearing and listening. Paying attention
to what a speaker is saying requires
intentional effort on your part. Nichols
(1957), credited with first researching
the field of listening, observed,
“listening is hard work. It is
characterized by faster heart action,
quicker circulation of the blood, a small
rise in bodily temperature” (p. 9).
Consider that we can process
information four times faster than a
person speaks. Yet, tests of listening
comprehension show the average
person listening at only 25% efficiency.
A typical person can speak 125 wordsper-minute, yet we can process up to
three times faster, reaching as much as
500 words-per-minute. The poor
listener grows impatient, while the
effective listener uses the extra
processing time to process the
speaker’s words, distinguish key points,
attitude
Even if you are paying attention, you
could be doing so with the wrong
attitude, the second A. Telling yourself
this is all a waste of time is not going to
help you to listen effectively. You’ll be
better off determining an internal
motivation to be attentive to the person
speaking. Approaching the task of
listening with a positive attitude and an
open-mind will make the act of
listening much easier. Bad listeners
make snap judgments that justify the
decision to be inattentive. Yet, since
you’re already there, why not listen to
see what you can learn? Kaponya
(1991) warns against psychological
deaf spots which impair our ability to
perceive and understand things counter
to our convictions. It can be as little as
a word or phrase that might cause “an
emotional eruption” causing
communication efficiency to drop
rapidly (p. 194). For instance, someone
who resolutely supports military action
as the best response to a terrorist action
may be unable to listen objectively to a
speaker endorsing negotiation as a
better tool. Even if the speaker is
effectively employing logic, drawing
on credible sources, and appealing to
emotion with a heartrending tale of the
civilian casualties caused by bombings,
this listener would be unable to keep an
open mind. Failing to acknowledge
your deaf spots will leave you at a
deficit when listening.
You will always need to make up
your own mind about where you stand
– whether you agree or disagree with
the speaker – but it is critical to do so
after listening. Adler (1983) proposes
having four questions in mind while
listening: “What is the whole speech
about?” “What are the main or pivotal
ideas, conclusions, and arguments?”
“Are the speaker’s conclusions sound
or mistaken?” and “What of it?” Once
you have an overall idea of the speech,
determine the key points, and gauge
your agreement, you can decide why it
matters, how it affects you, or what you
might do as a result of what you have
heard. Yet, he notes it is “impossible”
to answer all these questions at the
same time as you are listening (p. 96).
Instead, you have to be ready and
willing to pay attention to the speaker’s
point of view and changes in direction,
patiently waiting to see where she is
leading you.
There are things I can’t force.
I must adjust. There are times
when the greatest change
needed is a change of my
viewpoint.
~ Denis Diderot
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Chapter 4 Listening Effectively
adjustment
To do this well, you need the final of
the three A’s: adjustment. Often when
we hear someone speak, we don’t know
in advance what he is going to be
saying. So, we need to be flexible,
willing to follow a speaker along what
seems like a verbal detour down a
rabbit hole, until we are rewarded by
the speaker reaching his final
destination while his audience marvels
at the creative means by which he
reached his important point. If the
audience members are more intent on
reacting to or anticipating what is said,
they will be poor listeners indeed.
Take time now to think about your
own listening habits by completing the
listening profile, adapted from
Brownell (1996) (see Appendix A).
The next section will consider ways to
address the challenges of listening
effectively.
barriers to effective listening
We get in our own way when it
comes to effective listening. While
listening may be the communication
skill we use foremost in formal
education environments, it is taught the
least (behind, in order, writing, reading,
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and speaking) (Brownell, 1996). To
better learn to listen it is first important
to acknowledge strengths and
weaknesses as listeners. We routinely
ignore the barriers to our effective
listening; yet anticipating, judging, or
reacting emotionally can all hinder our
ability to listen attentively.
anticipating
Anticipating, or thinking about what
the listener is likely to say, can detract
from listening in several ways. On one
hand, the listener might find the
speaker is taking too long to make a
point and try to anticipate what the
final conclusion is going to be. While
doing this, the listener has stopped
actively listening to the speaker. A
listener who knows too much, or thinks
they do, listens poorly. The only
answer is humility, and recognizing
there is always something new to be
learned.
Anticipating what we will say in
response to the speaker is another
detractor to effective listening.
Imagine your roommate comes to
discuss your demand for quiet from
noon to 4 p.m. every day so that you
can nap in complete silence and utter
darkness. She begins by saying, “I
wonder if we could try to find a way
that you could nap with the lights on,
so that I could use our room in the
afternoon, too.” She might go on to
offer some perfectly good ideas as to
how this might be accomplished, but
you’re no longer listening because you
are too busy anticipating what you will
say in response to her complaint. Once
she’s done speaking, you are ready to
enumerate all of the things she’s done
wrong since you moved in together.
Enter the Resident Assistant to mediate
a conflict that gets out of hand quickly.
This communication would have gone
differently if you had actually listened
instead of jumping ahead to plan a
response.
An expert is someone who
has succeeded in making
decisions and judgments
simpler through knowing
what to pay attention to and
what to ignore.
~ Edward de Bono
judging
Jumping to conclusions about the
speaker is another barrier to effective
listening. Perhaps you’ve been in the
audience when a speaker makes a small
mistake; maybe it’s mispronouncing a
word or misstating the hometown of
your favorite athlete. An effective
listener will overlook this minor gaffe
and continue to give the speaker the
benefit of the doubt. A listener looking
for an excuse not to give their full
attention to the speaker will instead
take this momentary lapse as proof of
flaws in all the person has said and will
go on to say.
This same listener might also judge
the speaker based on superficialities.
Focusing on delivery or personal
appearance – a squeaky voice, a
ketchup stain on a white shirt,
mismatched socks, a bad haircut, or a
proclaimed love for a band that no one
of any worth could ever profess to like
– might help the ineffective listener
justify a choice to stop listening. Still,
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Chapter 4 Listening Effectively
this is always a choice. The effective
listener will instead accept that people
may have their own individual foibles,
but they can still be good speakers and
valuable sources of insight or
information.
reacting emotionally
When the speaker says an emotional
trigger, it can be even more difficult to
listen effectively. A guest speaker on
campus begins with a personal story
about the loss of a parent, and instead
of listening you become caught up
grieving a family member of your own.
Or, a presenter takes a stance on drug
use, abortion, euthanasia, religion, or
even the best topping for a pizza that
you simply can’t agree with. You
begin formulating a heated response to
the speaker’s perspective, or searing
questions you might ask to show the
holes in the speaker’s argument. Yet,
you’ve allowed your emotional
response to the speaker interfere with
your ability to listen effectively. Once
emotion is involved, effective listening
stops.
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return to later. For now, you should
keep on listening.
identify distractions
In any setting where you are
expected to listen, you encounter
numerous distractions. For instance,
the father sitting in the living room
watching television, might want to turn
off the television to better enable him
to listen to his son when he comes into
the room saying, “Dad, I have a
problem.” In the classroom setting,
you might be distracted sitting beside
friends who make sarcastic comments
throughout the class. In a new product
meeting with the sales team, you could
be unnerved by the constant beep of
your phone identifying another text,
email, or phone message has arrived.
Identifying the things that will interrupt
your attention, and making a conscious
choice to move to a different seat or
turn off your phone, can help position
you to listen more effectively.
Bore, n. A person who talks
when you wish him to listen.
~ Ambrose Bierce
strategies to enhance
listening
keep an open mind
Thinking about listening might make
you feel tense in the moment. The
effective listener is instead calm with a
focused and alert mind. You are not
waiting to hear what you want to hear,
but listening to “what is said as it is
said” (Ramsland, 1992, p. 171).
Effective listeners keep an open mind.
Remember that listening to a point of
view is not the same as accepting that
point of view. Recognizing this can
help you to cultivate a more open
perspective, helping you to better adjust
as you listen actively to a speaker.
Also, it might help you to curtail your
emotions. If you do encounter a point
that incenses you, write it down to
come prepared
Another useful strategy is to come
prepared when you can. Any time you
enter a listening situation with some
advance working knowledge of the
speaker and what might be expected of
you as a listener, you will be better able
to adjust and engage more deeply in
what is being said. For instance, you
might: read the assigned readings for
class, do the lab work before the lecture
writing up the results, read a biography
of a guest speaker before you go to an
event, review the agenda from the
previous staff meeting, or consult with
a colleague about a client before going
on-site to make a sale.
take notes
Taking notes can also advance your
ability to be actively engaged in the
speaker’s words. You need not write
down everything the speaker is saying.
First, this is quite likely to be
impossible. Second, once you are
caught up in recording a speaker’s
every word, you are no longer listening.
Use a tape recorder instead – having
asked the speaker’s permission first – if
you feel you really must capture every
word the speaker utters. You want to
focus your efforts on really listening
with an active mind. Learning to focus
your attention on main points, key
concepts, and gaining the overall gist of
the speaker’s talk is another skill to
develop. You might endeavor to do
this by jotting down a few notes or
even drawing visuals that help you to
recall the main ideas. The manner in
which you take the notes is up to you;
what is important is the fact that you
are listening and working to process
what is being said. Writing down
questions that come to mind and asking
questions of the speaker when it is
possible, are two more ways to
guarantee effective listening as you
have found an internal motivation to
listen attentively.
Education is the ability to
listen to almost anything
without losing your temper or
your self-confidence.
~ Robert Frost
providing feedback to
speakers
There are many ways in which a
listener can offer feedback to a speaker,
sometimes even wordlessly. Keeping
an openmind is something you do
internally, but you can also demonstrate
openness to a speaker through your
nonverbal communication.
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nonverbal feeback
Boothman (2008) recommends
listening with your whole body, not just
your ears. Consider how confident you
would feel speaking to a room full of
people with their eyes closed, arms and
legs crossed, and bodies bent in
slouches. These listeners are
presenting nonverbal cues that they are
uninterested and unimpressed.
Meanwhile, a listener sitting up
straight, facing you with an intent look
on his face is more likely to offer
reassurance that your words are being
understood.
Eye contact is another nonverbal cue
to the speaker that you are paying
attention. You don’t want to be bugeyed and unblinking; the speaker might
assume there is a tiger behind her and
begin to panic as you seem to be doing.
However, attentive eye contact can
indicate you are listening, and help you
to stay focused too. There are some
cultures where maintaining eye contact
would cause discomfort, so keep that in
mind. Also, you may be someone who
listens better with eyes closed to
visualize what is being said. This can
be difficult for a speaker to recognize,
so if this is you consider incorporating
one of the following nonverbals while
you listen with eyes closed.
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Nodding your head affirmatively,
making back-channel responses such as
“Yes,” “Umhum,” or “OK” can help
the speaker gauge your interest. Even
the speed of your head nod can signal
your level of patience or understanding
(Pease and Pease, 2006). Leaning in as
a listener is far more encouraging than
slumping in your seat. Miller (1994)
suggests the “listener’s lean”
demonstrates “ultimate interest. This
joyous feedback is reflexive. It
physically endorses our communiqué”
(p. 184). Nevertheless, sending too
many nonverbal responses to the
speaker can go wrong too. After all, a
conference room full of people shifting
in their seats and nodding their heads
may translate as a restless audience that
the speaker needs to recapture.
as a listener. For one, you have to
listen in order to be able to ask a
question. Your goal should be to ask
open-ended questions (“What do you
think about….?” rather than “We
should do …., right?”). You can use
questions to confirm your
understanding of the speaker’s
message. If you’re not entirely sure of
a significant point, you might ask a
clarifying question. These are
questions such as “What did you
mean?” “Can you be more specific?” or
“What is a concrete example of your
point?” These can help your
comprehension, while also offering the
speaker feedback. When asking
questions, approach the speaker in a
positive, non-threatening way. A good
listener doesn’t seek to put the speaker
on the defensive. You want to
demonstrate your objectivity and
willingness to listen to the speaker’s
response.
Finally, paraphrasing what has been
said in your interactions with the
speaker can be another useful tool for a
good listener. Imagine the difference
if, before you respond to an upset
colleague, you take a moment to say, “I
understand you are disappointed we
didn’t consult you before moving
forward with the product release…”
before you say, “we didn’t have time to
get everyone’s input.” Reflecting back
the speaker’s point of view before you
respond allows the speaker to know
you were listening ands helps foster
trust that everyone’s voice is being
heard.
The only way to entertain
some folks is to listen to
them.
~ Kin Hubbard
verbal feedback
While speakers sometimes want all
questions held until the end of a
presentation, asking questions when the
opportunity presents itself can help you
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encouraging effective
listening
William Henry Harrison was the
ninth President of the United States.
He’s also recognized for giving the
worst State of the Union address – ever.
His two-hour speech delivered in a
snowstorm in 1841 proves that a long
speech can kill (and not in the
colloquial “it was so good” sense).
Perhaps it was karma, but after the
President gave his meandering speech
discussing ancient Roman history more
than campaign issues, he died from a
cold caught while blathering on
standing outside without a hat or coat
(“William Henry Harrison,” 1989).
Now, when asked what you know
about Abraham Lincoln, you’re likely
to have more answers to offer. Let’s
focus on his Gettysburg Address. The
speech is a model of brevity. His “of
the people, by the people, for the
people” is always employed as an
example of parallelism, and he kept his
words simple. In short, Lincoln
considered his listening audience when
writing his speech.
The habit of common and
continuous speech is a
symptom of mental
deficiency. It proceeds from
not knowing what is going on
in other people’s minds.
~ Walter Bagehot
When you sit down to compose a
speech, keep in mind that you are
writing for the ear rather than the eye.
Listeners cannot go back and re-read
what you have just said. They need to
grasp your message in the amount of
time it takes you to speak the words.
To help them accomplish this, you need
to give listeners a clear idea of your
overarching aim, reasons to care, and
cues about what is important. You
need to inspire them to want to not just
hear but engage in what you are saying.
make your listeners care
Humans are motivated by ego; they
always want to know “what’s in it for
me?” So, when you want to want to get
an audience’s attention, it is imperative
to establish a reason for your listeners
to care about what you are saying.
Some might say Oprah did this by
giving away cars at the end of an
episode. But, that only explains why
people waited in line for hours to get a
chance to sit in the audience as her
shows were taped. As long as they
were in the stands, they didn’t need to
listen to get the car at the end of the
show. Yet Oprah had audiences
listening to her for 25 years before she
launched her own network. She made
listeners care about what she was
saying. She told them what was in that
episode for them. She made her
audience members feel like she was
talking to them about their problems,
and offering solutions that they could
use – even if they weren’t multibillionaires known worldwide by first
name alone.
Audiences are also more responsive
when you find a means to tap their
intrinsic motivation, by appealing to
curiosity, challenging them, or
providing contextualization
(VanDeVelde Luskin, 2003). You
might appeal to the audience’s curiosity
if you are giving an informative speech
about a topic they might not be familiar
with already. Even in a narrative
speech, you can touch on curiosity by
cueing the audience to the significant
thing they will learn about you or your
topic from the story. A speech can
present a challenge too. Persuasive
speeches challenge the audience to
think in a new way. Special Occasion
speeches might challenge the listeners
to reflect or prompt action. Providing a
listener with contextualization comes
back to the what’s in it for me
motivation. A student giving an
informative speech about the steps in
creating a mosaic could simply offer a
step-by-step outline of the process, or
she can frame it by saying to her
listener, “by the end of my speech,
you’ll have all the tools you need to
make a mosaic on your own.” This
promise prompts the audience to sit
further forward in their seats for what
might otherwise be a dry how-to
recitation.
This Way!
cue your listeners
Audiences also lean in further when
you employ active voice. We do this in
speaking without hesitation. Imagine
you were walking across campus and
saw the contents of someone’s room
dumped out on the lawn in front of
your dorm. You’d probably tell a
friend: “The contents of Jane’s room
were thrown out the window by Julie.”
Wait, that doesn’t sound right. You’re
more likely to say: “Julie threw Jane’s
stuff out the window!” The latter is an
example of active voice. You put the
actor (Julie) and the action (throwing
Jane’s stuff) at the beginning. When
we try to speak formally, we can fall
into passive voice. Yet, it sounds
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Chapter 4 Listening Effectively
stuffy, and so unfamiliar to your
listener’s ear that he will struggle to
process the point while you’ve already
moved on to the next thing you wanted
to say.
Twice and thrice over, as
they say, good is it to repeat
and review what is good.
~ Plato
Knowing that your audience only
hears what you are saying the one time
you say it, invites you to employ
repetition. Listeners are more likely to
absorb a sound when it is repeated. We
are often unconsciously waiting for a
repetition to occur so we can confirm
what we thought we heard (Brownell,
1996). As a result, employing
repetition can emphasize an idea for the
listener. Employing repetition of a
word, words, or sentence can create a
rhythm for the listener’s ear.
Employing repetition too often, though,
can be tiresome.
If you don’t want to repeat things so
often you remind your listener of a
sound clip on endless loop, you can
also cue your listener through vocal
emphasis. Volume is a tool speakers
can employ to gain attention. Certainly
parents use it all of the time. Yet, you
probably don’t want to spend your
entire speech shouting at your
audience. Instead, you can modulate
your voice so that you say something
important slightly louder. Or, you say
something more softly, although still
audible, before echoing it again with
greater volume to emphasize the
repetition. Changing your pitch or
volume can help secure audience
attention for a longer period of time, as
we welcome the variety.
Pace is another speaker’s friend.
This is not to be confused with the
moving back and forth throughout a
speech that someone might do
nervously (inadvertently inducing
motion sickness in his audience).
Instead it refers to planning to pause
after an important point or question to
www.publicspeakingproject.org
allow your audience the opportunity to
think about what you have just said.
Or, you might speak more quickly
(although still clearly) to emphasize
your fear or build humor in a long list
of concerns while sharing an anecdote.
Alternately, you could slow down for
more solemn topics or to emphasize the
words in a critical statement. For
instance, a persuasive speaker lobbying
for an audience to stop cutting down
trees in her neighborhood might say,
“this can’t continue. It’s up to you to do
something.” But imagine her saying
these words with attention paid to
pacing and each period representing a
pause. She could instead say, “This.
Can’t. Continue. It’s up to you. Do
something.”
When I was a little boy, starting as
early as four, my father would wake me
up on Fall Saturdays with the same
three words: “It’s Game Day!” My
dad was a big Clemson Tigers fan, so
we might drive to Death Valley to see a
game. Everyone would come: my
mom, my grandparents, and friends
who went to Clemson too. We would
all tailgate before the game – playing
corn hole, tossing a foam football, and
watching the satellite TV. Even though
we loved Clemson football best, all
college football was worth watching.
You never knew when there would be
an upset. You could count on seeing
pre-professional athletes performing
amazing feats. But, best of all, it was a
way to bond with my family, and later
my friends.
Both introductions set up the topic
and even give an idea of how the
speech will be organized. Yet, the
second one is made more interesting by
the human element. The speech is
personalized.
convince them to engage
Listeners respond to people.
Consider this introduction to a speech
about a passion for college football:
It’s college football season! Across
the nation, the season begins in late
summer. Teams play in several
different divisions including the SEC,
the ACC, and Big Ten. Schools make a
lot of money playing in the different
divisions, because people love to watch
football on TV. College football is
great for the fans, the players, and the
schools.
Now, compare it to this introduction
to another speech about the same
passion:
The college football enthusiast
speaker might continue to make the
speech interesting to his listeners by
appealing to commonalities. He might
acknowledge that not everyone in his
class is a Clemson fan, but all of them
can agree that their school’s football
team is fun to watch. Connecting with
the audience through referencing things
the speaker has in common with the
listeners can function as an appeal to
ethos. The speaker is credible to the
audience because he is like them. Or, it
can work as an appeal to pathos. A
speaker might employ this emotional
appeal in a persuasive speech about
Habitat for Humanity by asking her
audience to think first about the
comforts of home or dorm living that
they all take for granted.
If you engage people on a
vital, important level, they
will respond.
~ Edward Bond
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Chapter 4 Listening Effectively
In speaking to the audience about the
comforts of dorm living, the speaker is
unlikely to refer to the “dormitories
where we each reside.” More likely,
she might say, “the dorms we live in.”
As with electing to use active voice,
speakers can choose to be more
conversational than they might be in
writing an essay on the same topic.
The speaker might use contractions, or
colloquialisms, or make comparisons to
popular television shows, music, or
movies. This will help the listeners feel
like the speaker is in conversation with
them – admittedly a one-sided one –
rather than talking at them. It can be
off-putting to fe…