2-3 PG review and compare (there is 5 PDF files ) please read before you contact me

Research methods relevance (review and compare some of these avenues)

More Details in about the Assignment in the in the word Dec file

68 • People Matters • June 2010

MANAGING TALENT

Coaching
for Change

A case study on how Coaching with Compassion can
transform organizations as opposed to the traditional

approach of Coaching for Compliance

BY RICHARD E. BOYATZIS I MELVIN SMITH I ELLEN VAN OOSTEN

People Matters • June 2010 • 69

MANAGING TALENT

A
lthough he was Vice President of

information technology at a mid-
sized company, James1 was confused
about his future. He was doing quite
well. Or at least it appeared he was.

Having grown up in a poor neighborhood in a
Midwest city, he did much better than most of
his friends— he lived. He went to college and
was about to complete an Executive MBA Pro-
gram. James loved his daughters and had a sig-
nificant investment account ready to pay for their
college. He was divorced, but on amiable terms
with his ex-wife and had a girl friend. He was
devout in his faith, contributed his time eagerly
to church projects, and was an advocate for Prom-
ise Keepers (a movement to encourage Fathers
to keep their promises to their families and their
God). So what was wrong?

When James looked into his future, beyond a
few months, it was a blank wall. It did not worry
him, consciously. Like heartburn, he ignored his
lack of an image for his future and hoped the
discomfort would go away. His personal vision
essay was devoted entirely to his family and his
faith. His coach asked him, “James, you didn’t men-
tion anything about work in your essay about
your future. Do you have trust funds that you
didn’t mention?

”

He laughed, “No, I just thought
I’d keep doing what I have been doing.” Trying to
invoke his passion about the future, his coached
probed, “What would you love to do?”

After a long silence, he shrugged his shoul-
ders. It seemed incongruous, a well-dressed, ef-
fective executive acting like a teenager who does
not know what they want to have as a major in
college. His coach pushed, “If you won the Lot-
tery, say $80 million dollars after tax, what would
you do?” He told him that maybe he would drive
a truck cross-country. This seemed more like an
escape fantasy than a dream. A few minutes later,
in response to a question as to what would make

him feel truly happy that he was fulfilling his
purpose in life, he said, “Teaching high school kids,
in the inner city, that computers can be their in-
struments to freedom.”

Possibilities then opened up for James. He
shared his dream that he could teach workshops
on Saturdays or Fridays at local high schools. He
talked about setting up IT internships for high
school students at local companies. It was as if a
dam had opened and ideas flooded his con-
sciousness. He leaned forward and was talking
faster than I’d heard him talk in months. The ex-
citement was contagious you could feel it. James
had an epiphany. His image of his “work” in the
future changed him from “been there, done that”
to “Wow, I can’t wait to get started.” James now
had a dream— a clear one he could work toward.
Two years later, he was actively in pursuit of his
dreams. He was running computer workshops and
programs for teens while continuing his consult-
ing firm. He got an offer to coordinate an IT pro-
gram, work full time as an administrator/faculty
at a local community college. So when his firm
offered a buy-out package as part of their down-
sizing, he took it.

In these uncertain and fearful times, many
people around the world, like James are avoiding
looking to their future and just trying to get by
in the present, or tolerating their situation. It is a
dysfunctional response to having a future a person
dreams about. Unfortunately, those of us in the help-
ing professions, like teachers, trainers, and coaches,
are often adding to this blocking of the future. Man-
agers doing performance reviews and trying to mo-
tivate a person to change and improve in the fu-
ture are often committing the same act of ‘visiono-
cide’. We are contributing to killing off people’s
dreams and inhibiting their progress toward a
more effective future. The source of the misdi-
rected effort and less than desirable consequences
lay in misunderstanding how people change.

People Matters • June 2010 • 69

ELLEN VAN OOSTENRICHARD E. BOYATZIS MELVIN SMITH

Managers
doing perfor-

mance reviews
and trying to

motivate a
person to

improve often
commit the
same act of

“visionocide”

“

”

70 • People Matters • June 2010

MANAGING TALENT

The Positive and Negative Emotional

Attractors
In his Intentional Change Theory,

Boyatzis2 explained that in pursuit of change
or adaptation or in response to change or
threat, people and our human systems move
toward a Positive Emotional Attractor (PEA)
or a Negative Emotional Attractor (NEA).
Arousal of the NEA pulls the person into a
stress-aroused state by arousing the Sym-
pathetic Nervous System (SNS). This results
in decreased cognitive functioning, decreas-
ing perceptual openness, a severe drop in
immune system functioning, and suscepti-
bility to illnesses—not to mention that you
feel nervous, anxious, worried, and in gen-
eral not good.

To minimize the likelihood of sliding into
coaching for compliance, there are a few
common traps or seductions to avoid.

Efficiency is important. This leads to
wanting to do the coaching quickly. It typically
leads to a short term fix and impatience with
the process. It also puts pressure on the
person being coached to get on with the
changes, adding pressure and stress. It
arouses the NEA and results in the person
coping and then closing down.

Work on the weaknesses. The desire for
fast action can easily evolve into a premature
focus on the weaknesses. The belief is that
by working on the weaknesses you will have
the most impact on the person improving.
But that actually arouses the NEA and
stops the change process.

Data Drive the Motivation to Change.
Whether the data come from an assess-
ment center, 360-degree feedback, or

In contrast, arousal of the PEA helps a
person function at their best. Research in
neuroscience, endocrinology, and psychol-
ogy has shown that arousing a person’s hope
for the future stimulates the Parasympathet-
ic Nervous System (PSNS). This is the state
in which the human mind and body is at its
cognitive best, can create new neural tis-
sue which allows for learning, engages the
immune system, and enables the person to
be more open to new ideas, feelings, and
other people.3

To summarize, arousal of the PEA helps a
person prepare for and engage in sustained,
desired change. Arousal of the NEA does the
opposite. It facilitates a person closing down
and avoiding anything that might induce more
stress. It is a defensive posture and invokes
diminished capacity for adaptation because
it is following an instinctive physiological re-
action to chronic or acute prolonged stress to
protect the organism. But while this might
have helped us survive 10,000 years ago, it
does not help us survive or thrive today.

Coaching for Compassion
Coaching James involved arousing his

Positive Emotional Attractor through eliciting

climate survey, the data become the
sledge hammer and invoke defensiveness
and arousal of the NEA. We are all
socialized to look for our weaknesses in
today’s world. By offering the data too
early in the coaching process, you seduce
the person into looking at their weakness-
es. Like our fascination with the tabloids,
we focus first on the things most likely to
hurt or be wrong—the gaps. But again,
this drives us into the NEA. If any ideas for
“change do emerge, they are often a
response to change agenda that’s
externally driven.

I Know What They Need. This creates a
major Ought Self push in the coaching and
again arouses the NEA. When the coach
thinks, he/she knows how the other person
should change, the other person picks it up.
Now compliance is in full swing—and the
contagion of emotions is mostly defensive
and NEA.

COMMON TRAPS TO AVOID

When most of us try to help someone,
we often get seduced
into focusing on the things that need to
be fixed, like a person’s weaknesses

People Matters • June 2010 • 71

MANAGING TALENT

his dreams about the future, about possibili-
ties, and arousing his hope.4 It was the begin-
ning of a process of helping James to articu-
late his personal vision.5 This is what we call
coaching with compassion. When you coach
someone to their PEA, you arouse their PSNS
with all of the enhanced cognitive and emo-
tional functioning and ability to learn that is
part of it.

Because of the contagion of emotions6,
coaching with compassion arouses compas-
sion in the coach, as well as in the person
being coached. The physiological and emo-
tional renewal processes (the only non-phar-
maceutical antidote to the ravages of chron-
ic stress) then allow the person to consider
possibilities of change- and allow him/her to
be more open to the coach and other people
around them. James had pondered these is-
sues before, but it was the compassionate
and caring relationship with the coach that
allowed him to break through to a new level
of insight about his dreams and future possi-
bilities. But this does not always happen.

Coaching for Compliance
When most of us try to help someone,

we often get seduced into focusing on the
things that need to be fixed, like a person’s
weaknesses. In the process, we invoke the
NEA and the body’s stress reaction. The
person being coached often feels on the de-
fensive, feeling a need to justify or prove
himself/herself. Or, the person feels that
he/she should go along with the coach’s
desire for them to change some aspect of
their behavior. In other words, the person
being coached is pushed to move toward
the coach’s image of how he/she should
behave. In this manner, we often slip into
coaching for compliance.

Instead of invoking the person’s Ideal Self,
their dreams of a possible and desired fu-
ture, the coach, manager, trainer, or teacher
invokes the person’s Ought Self.7 That is, they
stimulate the image of the person he/she
ought to become. When this Ought Self is
imposed and is not consistent with the per-
son’s Ideal Self, it arouses the SNS and con-
tributes to the person closing down their mind
and willingness to change. This is the oppo-
site of what we can arouse and how we can
help another person when we coach them with
compassion.

Coaches often utilize feedback data from
an assessment center or a 360-degree feed-
back assessment, and then proceed to ana-
lyze the weaknesses and gaps in the per-
son’s data. The coach then tries to get the

Richard E. Boyatzis, Ph.D.,
Professor, Departments of
Organizational Behavior,
Psychology, and Cognitive Science
-H.R. Horvitz Chair of Family
Business Case Western Reserve
University;

Melvin L. Smith, Ph.D., Associate
Professor of Organizational
Behavior, Faculty Director,
Executive Education – Case
Western Reserve University
Weatherhead School of
Management;

Ellen B. Van Oosten, Senior
Director, Business Development-
Case/Weatherhead School of
Management.

This article is based on the
authors’ research and writing for
Coaching at Work Magazine

Footnotes

1 James is a pseudonym for a real person who prefers
not to be identified.

2 Boyatzis, R.E. (2006a). Intentional change theory from
a complexity perspective. Journal of Management
Development, 25(7), 607-623.

3 Boyatzis, R.E., Smith, M. & Blaize, N. (2006). Developing
S u s t a i n a b l e L e a d e r s t h r o u g h C o a c h i n g a n d
Compassion. Academy of Management Journal on
Learning and Education, 5(1), 8-24.

4 Smith, M., Van Oosten, E., & Boyatzis, R.E. (2009). Coaching
for sustained desired change. in Pasmore, W. &
Woodman, R., Research in Organization Development and
Change (Volume 17).

5 Boyatzis, R.E. & McKee, A. (2005). Resonant Leadership:
R e n e w i n g Yo u r s e l f a n d C o n n e c t i n g w i t h O t h e r s
Through Mindfulness, Hope, and Compassion. Boston,
MA: Harvard Business School Press.

6 Goleman, D. & Boyatzis, R. (September, 2008). Social
intelligence and the biology of leadership. Harvard
Business Review. 86:9, pp. 74-81.

7 Boyatzis, R.E. & Akrivou, K. (2006). The Ideal Self as a
Driver of Change. Journal of Management Development,
25(7), 624-642.

person to identify what they can do to
change. Although the opposite to the coach’s
intention (that of helping the other person),
the coach has aroused the NEA and dimin-
ished the person’s ability to make sustain-
able change.

What Next?

Life seems more exciting when we con-
sider the possibilities and pursue them. This
positive, hopeful state reflects internal phys-
iological and emotional processes. We are
actually healthier, more open, more capable
of learning, and better able to cognitively
function at a higher plane, when in this state.
Coaching others with compassion arouses
this in the coach and the person being
coached. It is opposite of the state typically
aroused in coaching for compliance. Coach-
ing with compassion is coaching for results
and sustained desired change.

Coaching with compassion is
coaching for results
and sustained desired change, focusing on
the person’s vision of self

The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science
49(2) 153 –178

sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/0021886312462236

jab.sagepub.com

462236 JAB49210.1177/0021886312462236The
Journal of Applied Behavioral ScienceBoyatzis et al.

1Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA

Corresponding Author:
Richard E. Boyatzis, Department of Organizational Behavior, Case Western Reserve University, Peter B.
Lewis Building, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA.
Email: richard.boyatzis@case.edu

Coaching With Compassion:
Inspiring Health, Well-
Being, and Development in
Organizations

Richard E. Boyatzis1, Melvin L. Smith1,
and ‘Alim J. Beveridge1

Abstract

Compassion involves noticing another’s need, empathizing, and acting to enhance
their well-being. In response to another’s pain, the motivation is to increase hedonic
well-being or the absence of pain. In response to another’s desire to grow, the
motivation is to increase eudaimonic well-being or helping them develop. We argue
that compassion includes both. Our expanded view suggests that coaching with
compassion will lead to desired change, enhanced health, and well-being. We propose
a model saying coaching with compassion invokes a psychophysiological state that
enables a person to be open to new possibilities and learning. In contrast, coaching
for compliance (i.e., toward how the coach or the organization believe the person
should act) and deficiency-based coaching invoke the opposite state—resulting in a
person being defensive, reducing cognitive functioning. We theorize how coaching
with compassion can enhance adaptability of the organization through creating norms
and relationships of caring and development.

Keywords

coaching, compassion, well-being, complexity

Coaching as a practice has gained in popularity as evident by the growth of the coach-
ing industry during the past decade1 (Feldman & Lankau, 2005; Segers, Vloeberghs,
Henderickx, & Inceoglu, 2011; Smith, Van Oosten, & Boyatzis, 2009). Despite this

Article

The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science
49(2) 153–178

sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/0021886312462236
jab.sagepub.com
462236 JAB49210.1177/0021886312462236The
Journal of Applied Behavioral ScienceBoyatzis et al.
1Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA
Corresponding Author:
Richard E. Boyatzis, Department of Organizational Behavior, Case Western Reserve University, Peter B.
Lewis Building, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA.
Email: richard.boyatzis@case.edu
Coaching With Compassion:
Inspiring Health, Well-
Being, and Development in
Organizations
Richard E. Boyatzis1, Melvin L. Smith1,
and ‘Alim J. Beveridge1
Abstract
Compassion involves noticing another’s need, empathizing, and acting to enhance
their well-being. In response to another’s pain, the motivation is to increase hedonic
well-being or the absence of pain. In response to another’s desire to grow, the
motivation is to increase eudaimonic well-being or helping them develop. We argue
that compassion includes both. Our expanded view suggests that coaching with
compassion will lead to desired change, enhanced health, and well-being. We propose
a model saying coaching with compassion invokes a psychophysiological state that
enables a person to be open to new possibilities and learning. In contrast, coaching
for compliance (i.e., toward how the coach or the organization believe the person
should act) and deficiency-based coaching invoke the opposite state—resulting in a
person being defensive, reducing cognitive functioning. We theorize how coaching
with compassion can enhance adaptability of the organization through creating norms
and relationships of caring and development.
Keywords
coaching, compassion, well-being, complexity
Coaching as a practice has gained in popularity as evident by the growth of the coach-
ing industry during the past decade1 (Feldman & Lankau, 2005; Segers, Vloeberghs,
Henderickx, & Inceoglu, 2011; Smith, Van Oosten, & Boyatzis, 2009). Despite this
Article

154 The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 49(2)

Our experiences at work affect psychological and emotional states and the health of
our bodies. We therefore explain how the psychological, emotional, and physiological
consequences of experiencing coaching with compassion have an enduring impact on
individual health and development. In this way, we both expand current understanding
of the experience and effects of compassion and explore how our bodies are affected
by social interactions at work (Heaphy & Dutton, 2008). Finally, we discuss how
coaching with compassion affects the organization through its effect on the individu-
al’s appraisal of the organization, his or her behavior at work, and his or her relation-
ships with colleagues.

Coaching With Compassion
Various definitions of coaching have been offered. Most converge on its being a
“facilitative or helping relationship with the purpose of achieving some type of
change, learning, or new level of individual or organizational performance” (Smith et
al., 2009, p. 150). Because this definition could also describe mentoring, we distin-
guish the two by clarifying that coaching involves a shorter term duration and a more
specific focus (Smith et al., 2009). Unlike other scholars (e.g., Sue-Chan, Wood, &
Latham, 2012), we refer to an explicit dyadic coaching process. This means that both
coach and coachee are aware of participating in such a process. Although the coaching
often takes place during determined coaching sessions, it sometimes occurs walking
to or from meetings, at lunch, or in other less formal sessions. With this in mind, the
coach might be a formal internal or external coach, a boss, or, as recent research has
suggested (Parker, Hall, & Kram, 2008), a peer.

Several recent studies suggest that it is the general orientation or approach to coach-
ing, rather than specific techniques or behaviors, that predicts important outcomes,
such as increased learning and performance (de Haan, Culpin, & Curd, 2011; Sue-
Chan et al., 2012). Consistent with these studies, we focus on general types or
approaches to coaching. Specifically, we primarily theorize about an approach known
as coaching with compassion (Boyatzis et al., 2006). We define compassion as an
interpersonal process that involves noticing another person as being in need, empa-
thizing with him or her, and acting to enhance his or her well-being in response to that

Boyatzis et al. 155

need. We will elaborate on this simple definition in a subsequent section. Compassion,
we claim, is a key component of coaching with compassion.

The hallmark of coaching with compassion is the focus on invoking the Ideal Self
to initiate and guide the change process. The Ideal Self is the individual’s vision of
who he or she wants to be and includes hir or her goals, values, and deepest aspirations
for the individual’s future (Boyatzis, 2008; Boyatzis & Akrivou, 2006; Higgins, 1987).
The starting point of coaching with compassion is helping the coachee develop or
articulate a compelling personal vision. Research on visioning has shown that it helps
guide future behavior (Roffe, Schmidt, & Ernst, 2005), arouses hope, and increases
athletic and academic performance (Curry, Snyder, Cook, Ruby, & Rehm, 1997;
Snyder, Rand, & Sigmon, 2002). Following the articulation of the Ideal Self, the coach
may help the coachee take stock of their current situation, identify required changes,
and make a realistic and exciting plan to implement these changes.

A second important characteristic of coaching with compassion is the focus on
identifying current strengths before considering weaknesses. Thus, it incorporates
strength-based development (Roberts, Dutton, Spreitzer, Heaphy, & Quinn, 2005).
However, coaching with compassion is more than a simple sequence of steps. To be
successful, the coach must establish a trusting relationship with the coachee, so they
discuss their hopes and dreams openly, and develop in them a sense of safety to explore
new thinking and behavior (Brotman, Liberi, & Wasylyshyn, 1998).

Coaching with compassion can be distinguished from three other basic types of
coaching. First, because of its primary objective to further the coachee’s growth and
development it stands in contrast to instrumental coaching. The objective of instru-
mental coaching is to influence the coachee to change to better fit the goals of the
organization, their manager, or perhaps the coach, rather than their own. Providing
advice to someone to help improve his or her performance, trying to convince that
individual to accept a particular assignment, or putting pressure on him or her to act
more consistently with organizational norms are all focused on influencing the coachee
to do something desired by others. To be clear, coaching with compassion may involve
both focusing on furthering the coachee’s development and serving an organizational
need. The critical factor is whether or not the coachee’s own goals and view of his or
her development is taken into account.

Second, coaching with compassion is distinct from coaching that aims to help the
coachee develop but omits the focus on the coachee’s Ideal Self. When a coach
points to something that the coachee should change or improve, even if the intention
is to further the coachee’s good, the coach is prescribing what the coachee should do.
According to self-discrepancy theory, in such situations, the coachee focuses on the
Ought Self, which often comes into conflict with the Ideal Self (Brockner & Higgins,
2001; Higgins, 1987; Higgins, Roney, Crowe, & Hymes, 1994). The theory predicts
that when people to whom one turns for help, or those with more organizational
power suggest an Ought Self, one feels pressure to comply. This can ensue even
from well-intentioned, ostensibly helpful behavior, such as helping a person net-
work or calling someone to ask for an interview on behalf of the coachee. Such

156 The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 49(2)

Third, coaching with compassion differs from approaches that attempt to stimulate
the coachee’s development by focusing on deficiencies. Coaching and mentoring pro-
grams and performance reviews often adopt this focus on deficits. Coaching with com-
passion, in contrast, puts a greater emphasis on the coachee’s strengths than his or her
weaknesses.

To summarize, we define coaching with compassion as a process that aims to fur-
ther the coachee’s development by focusing on their Ideal Self and on their strengths
more than their weaknesses. Instrumental coaching and coaching toward the Ought
Self can be called coaching for compliance, defined as coaching another to comply
with an authority’s or an organization’s view of how they should act, often inducing a
defensiveness or sense of guilt (Boyatzis et al., 2006). We argue that coaching with
compassion leads to more positive outcomes than coaching for compliance and defi-
cit-based coaching.

To support our claim that coaching with compassion is an instance of compassion,
we next present a theoretical discussion of our expanded view of compassion.

An Expanded View of Compassion
Our concept of compassion builds on Boyatzis et al.’s (2006) proposition that compas-
sion consists of (a) empathizing with the other, (b) caring for the other, and (c) acting
in response to the other’s feelings. In this section, we examine these three components
and argue for the adoption of a more encompassing view of each.

In the management literature, the most widely accepted definition of compassion
consists of three components: (a) noticing or attending to another’s suffering; (b) other-
regarding feelings such as empathic concern; and (c) acting to ease the suffering
(Dutton, Worline, Frost, & Lilius, 2006; Frost, Dutton, Worline, & Wilson, 2000;
Kanov et al., 2004). There is no apparent relationship between this definition and
coaching unless one were to conceive of coaching as a remedial intervention. Yet,
coaching, like other developmental relationships, is not always focused on helping the
beneficiary overcome a problem; nor is the coachee necessarily in distress at the out-
set. Coaches are often asked to help someone attain an important goal or more fully
realize their potential, even when there is no “problem” to be resolved.

Social scientists do not fully agree on the definition of compassion. In a recent
review, Goetz, Keltner, and Simon-Thomas (2010) contend that compassion is a
unique, discrete emotional state that, along with sympathy, pity, and empathic con-
cern, can be placed in a family of emotions that center “upon a concern for ameliorat-
ing the suffering of another individual” (p. 352). As mentioned above, the most
common definition in the management literature holds that compassion is a dynamic,
relational process of noticing, feeling, and responding to the pain or suffering of

Boyatzis et al. 157

another (e.g., Dutton et al., 2006). While the two definitions differ, they have in com-
mon the assumption that compassion is always a response to the distress, pain, or suf-
fering of another.

We argue, however, that the first component of compassion should be viewed as
noticing another’s need or desire, which is more general than pain or distress. The use
of the term compassion, both in everyday language and in scholarly writing, implies
that it need not be exclusively linked to distress, pain, or suffering. Studies of lay con-
ceptions of compassion have shown that English speakers most often group the word
compassion with terms, such as love, tenderness, and caring (Shaver, Schwartz,
Kirson, & O’Connor, 1987), none of which imply a response to pain or distress. Within
the academic literature, the term compassion often appears together with other terms,
such as care, caregiving, caretaking, tenderness, warmth, cooperating, and helping
(e.g., Batson & Shaw, 1991; Goetz et al., 2010; Kanov et al., 2004; Lilius et al., 2008).
None of these are exclusively triggered by distress and pain. While caregiving is per-
formed toward someone who is unable to fully care for himself or herself, most recipi-
ents of caregiving are not in a constant state of distress, pain, or suffering.

We find that Buddhist philosophy of mind also supports our view. Compassion
within the Buddhist tradition is a response to dukkha, a Pali word that has often been
translated as suffering. However, many scholars of Buddhism have pointed out that
the translation is inaccurate. The original term encompasses a range of experience,
from pain and suffering to unease and disquietude (Coseru, 2011; Olson, 2009).
Consequently, some modern translations use the term unsatisfactoriness instead.
Disquietude and unsatisfactoriness include both negative experience, such as exis-
tential unease, and positive ones, such as the desire to self-actualize. This inner
experience of disquietude may be noticed by another even if it does not result in an
arousal of negative emotion.

We concede that it is likely that in our evolutionary history, compassion was once
an emotional response that could only be triggered by others’ pain and distress (Goetz
et al., 2010). However, over time, the functions of many emotions have expanded. For
example, Haidt, Rozin, Mccauley, and Imada (1997) propose that the function of dis-
gust has expanded from only protecting us from physically harmful substances to also
protecting us from what is socially deemed as harmful. They argue that early in human
evolutionary history, disgust exclusively served to prevent the swallowing or inhaling
of substances that could be poisonous or otherwise dangerous, and induce vomiting if
a harmful substance had been swallowed. Modern humans, however, also react with
disgust to things that are considered morally reprehensible to them.

We contend that the function of compassion has similarly expanded. Goetz et al.
(2010) for example, claim that one of compassion’s functions is the “maintenance of
cooperative relationships” (p. 365). Cooperative relationships would be ineffective if
the parties involved only helped each other when the other was in pain. If compassion
were only triggered by distress and pain, it would not be sufficient to maintain a
cooperative relationship. Our contemporary societies require that we invest heavily
in cooperation and in helping and developing each other, even when there are no

158 The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 49(2)

The second component of compassion, in our view, must be empathic concern.
Batson, Early, and Salvarani (1997) have shown that there are two basic responses to
observing another’s distress. Imagining what it would feel like to be “in the shoes” of
the other produces distress. In contrast, imagining what the other must be feeling leads
to empathic concern (Batson et al., 1997). Importantly, in the first situation, if the
observer lends a hand, it is to reduce his or her own distress while empathic concern
leads to helping behavior motivated by reducing the other’s distress (Batson & Shaw,
1991). Current theorizing on compassion fails to distinguish between these two moti-
vations behind helping behavior. We contend that the first case is not compassion
while the second is. In fact, we contend that being motivated by a desire to alleviate
one’s own distress is similar to coaching for compliance: coaching guided by the orga-
nization’s or the coach’s needs, rather than a response to the coachee’s desires or
aspirations.

While the studies cited above focused on situations involving distress, in other
studies, Batson has shown empathic concern to be a response to another’s need as
well. Moreover, in other scholars’ work, empathic concern is associated with behav-
iors that are not necessarily responses to others’ suffering, such as generosity and kind-
ness (e.g., Koestner, Franz, & Weinberger, 1990).

Finally, we propose an alternative view of the third component of compassion. In a
recent review, Ryan and Deci (2001) distinguished between two conceptions of well-
being: hedonic, which is centered on pleasure or the absence of pain, and eudaimonic,
which is centered on self-actualization. In current theorizing, which sees compassion
as a response to another’s pain and suffering, the focus of the third component is only
on increasing hedonic well-being. In our view, compassion can be directed toward
both forms of well-being. When compassion begins with noticing another’s desire to
grow, then the motivation may focus on furthering that person’s eudaimonic well-
being, in other words, supporting his or her development and growth.

In Figure 1, we provide an illustration of our expanded conceptualization of com-
passion and its relation to the concepts of sympathy and empathy. Sympathy, we argue,
is a passive response to the negative emotion of another. We suggest that empathy, on
the other hand, is more encompassing in that it represents an ability to accurately per-
ceive and relate to the emotions of another, be they positive or negative (Levenson &
Ruef, 1992). The traditional view of compassion may be seen as an extension of sym-
pathy. It is an active response to one’s understanding and caring about the negative
emotion experienced by another. Our expanded view of compassion, however, is more
appropriately viewed as an extension of empathy. As we have argued, we see compas-
sion as an active response to the needs of another, whether that be represented by a
positive or a negative emotional state. Under the traditional view of compassion, a
manager might notice that an employee is down due to the loss of a loved one and

Boyatzis et al. 159

attempt to comfort him or her in the time of grief. Under our expanded view, we sug-
gest that a manager might also demonstrate compassion by, for example, noticing that
employees are excited about the possibility of moving to a new role in the organiza-
tion, and then helping them understand what they need to do to effectively prepare and
position themselves for that new role. To summarize, we posit that compassion is an
interpersonal process composed of (a) noticing another’s need, (b) feeling empathic
concern for the other person, and (c) actively responding to enhance his or her
well-being.

What we offer is a more generalized view of compassion that encompasses existing
definitions while allowing for a broader understanding of human need and responses
to need. In the context of coaching, the need of the other may be born from pain or may
reflect a desire to be consistent with certain values, a personal dream or a vision. The
response to that need may aim to enhance the other’s hedonic or eudaimonic well-
being, or both. What connects the trigger and the response in a way that demonstrates
compassion is genuine empathic concern or care for the other. Therefore, we offer two
definitions:

1. Compassion is present in coaching when the coach empathically responds to
a coachee’s (a) need for the alleviation of pain or suffering; or (b) desire to
develop or grow; and

2. Compassion is experienced by a coachee when he or she perceives that the
coach is expressing empathic concern in responding to his or her (a) pain or
suffering; or (b) desire to develop or grow.

Figure 1. An expanded view of compassion.

160 The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 49(2)

Psychophysiological Aspects of Coaching

The different outcomes of the approaches to coaching we discuss are rooted in distinct
psychological and physiological processes. We build our arguments regarding these
processes on two theoretical psychophysiological states: the positive and negative
emotional attractors (Boyatzis, 2008). They are called “attractors” in reference to
strange or chaotic attractors in Lorenz’s terms (Érdi, 2008). Strange attractors are
generated by the complex, dynamic and recursive interactions among tightly coupled
components. They are sensitive to specific changes that, though small, can cause dis-
proportionate shifts. These changes are commonly called tipping points.

Based on complexity theory, we theorize that the positive emotional attractor (PEA)
and negative emotional attractor (NEA) are self-regulating and stabilizing states that
self-propagate until a tipping point produces a shift from one to the other. That is, a
person is pulled into the sphere of influence of one attractor by a tipping point and
remains there until another tipping point is reached (Boyatzis, 2008). The effects of a
tipping point being reached may be visible in a person’s nonverbal behavior. We have
often watched a person we are coaching start the session with their arms crossed or
slightly leaning back in their chair. Once we ask them about their ideal life or core
values, they lean forward, open their arms, and begin talking with animation, energy,
and often a smile on their face. The question about their dreams was a tipping point in
moving them from the NEA into the PEA.

The three components making up these attractors are (a) the degree of positive
versus negative emotions aroused; (b) the intensity of emotional arousal; and (c) the
degree of parasympathetic nervous system versus sympathetic nervous system arousal.
We deliberately employ the PEA and NEA constructs rather than positive and negative
emotions because the PEA/NEA model encompasses both affective experience and
physiological activation.

Russell and Carroll (1999), using meta-analysis and mathematical critique, argued
that positive and negative affect are not merely bipolar. Following their recommenda-
tion, in the PEA/NEA model, the experience of emotion is captured with a dimension
for the intensity of arousal in addition to a dimension representing positive versus
negative emotional arousal.

The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems are two distinct branches
of the autonomic nervous systems, the system that controls most of the functions of
the body that are not under conscious control, such as heart rate, breathing rate,
digestion, and perspiration (Janig & Habler, 1999). The sympathetic nervous system
(SNS) is activated when the body goes into a response to stress. The parasympa-
thetic nervous system (PNS) is activated when the body is calm and in renewal.
While arousal of the SNS and the PNS are not mutually exclusive, researchers have
argued that they have a suppressing effect on each other (McEwen, 1998; Sapolsky,
2004). Thus, one of the two types of arousal will generally dominate the body’s
functioning at any point.

Boyatzis et al. 161

The PEA/NEA model is related to, yet distinct from, other scholars’ depictions of
emotions as dynamic, complex systems. Losada and Heaphy (2004) used nonlinear
equations to model the relationship between team performance and three characteris-
tics of intra-team interactions, one of which was the ratio of positive to negative utter-
ances. While there are similarities between the PEA/NEA and the strange attractor
they discovered in high performing teams, which they linked to a positivity to negativ-
ity (P/N) ratio of 2.9 or higher, there are also important differences. Their work focused
only on teams and they made no claim that this dynamic system also applies to the
intra-individual or dyadic levels. Furthermore, they did not incorporate physiological
data into their system.

Gottman, Murray, Swanson, Tyson, and Swanson (2002) used an attractor concept
to capture the impact of the emotions aroused in stable, loving marriages. Their model
has two components similar to the PEA/NEA model, which are the ratio of positive to
negative emotions aroused and degree of emotional intensity in the spouses’ attempts
at influencing each other. They found that healthy marriages, as opposed to those that
ended in divorce or separate lives, were distinguished by a ratio of positive to negative
emotions of 5:1 or higher. Their model differs from the PEA/NEA in two ways: it was
constructed to be applied at the dyadic level only and it does not incorporate physio-
logical factors as a component.

Fredrickson’s (1998, 2001) broaden-and-build theory posits that positive emotions
create an upward spiral that continuously increases well-being and builds psychologi-
cal resources. This is similar to the self-perpetuating nature of the PEA/NEA and the
psychophysiological processes that play a central role in the theory. A difference
between broaden-and-build and PEA/NEA is that the former makes claims about
within-individual, across-occasions processes (Nickerson, 2006) while the latter
describes within-individual, within- and across-occasion processes.

In contrast to these three models, the PEA/NEA highlights the important role
played by our bodies in our experiences and interactions with others. Moreover,
because our physiology, emotions and cognition are intertwined (LeDoux, 2002), the
PEA/NEA can be applied to emotional dynamics at the individual, dyadic, and higher
levels of analysis.

Arousing the Positive Emotional Attractor
Synthesizing research on positive emotions from many fields, we theorize that the
PEA is a state of positive affect that involves the physiological arousal of the PNS and
corresponding neuroendocrine systems.2 Arousal of the PNS slows down the heart
rate and triggers the release of several hormones into the blood, including oxytocin,
primarily in women, and vasopressin, primarily in men. These two hormones are
associated with many physiological, psychological, and social benefits (Insel, 1997;
Schulkin, 1999). Oxytocin, for instance, reduces anxiety and heightens feelings of
tenderness, attachment, and closeness to others.

162 The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 49(2)

The PEA acts as a self-reinforcing, self-perpetuating cycle. Positive emotions cre-
ate a positive bias in cognitions: one thinks more positive thoughts, is more optimistic
about the future, recalls positive valence memories, and attends more to positive
attributes in others (Bower & Forgas, 2001). In terms of behavior, positive emotions
lead one to be more altruistic, helpful, cooperative, and conciliatory (Barsade &
Gibson, 2007; Insel, 1997). These cognitions and behaviors in turn trigger positive
emotions (Fredrickson & Joiner, 2002), creating a positive feedback loop. This cycle
perpetuates itself, we contend, until a tipping point, such as a negative salient affec-
tive event—for instance, receiving discouraging feedback or bad news—causes a
shift into the NEA.

Coaching with compassion achieves the activation of the PEA in the coachee in two
ways. First, the PEA is triggered by the individual describing his or her ideals, dreams,
aspirations, or passions in response to the coach’s probing. Focusing on the Ideal Self
is a powerful, positive emotional event and creates the tipping point necessary for
arousing the PEA. One consequence, as discussed above, is the activation of neural
circuits that allow the coachee to consider possibilities that they might otherwise have
ignored. For instance, one executive realized that he did not have to wait until retire-
ment to move to Kenya and help his village. He identified a way to get transferred to
the international division of his current company. In addition, his company funded the
extra work for his village while he was doing his main job. Similarly, an IT executive
realized that she did not have to quit her VP position to help inner city children learn to
love computers. She took one Friday morning off per month to deliver workshops in the
local high school. Neither of these executives had considered these possibilities prior to
their coaching session; they only saw obstacles and had surrendered their dreams. This
suggests that the focus on the Ideal Self can lead to an intense arousal of the PEA.

Second, coaching with compassion would arouse the PEA because sharing their
Ideal Self with someone who listens with interest and strives to help them achieve their
aspirations is likely to invoke in the coachee a perception that the coach cares as well
as create a feeling of safety. Prior research has shown that feeling cared for is associ-
ated with lower blood pressure, enhanced immunity, overall better health (Insel, 1997;
Sapolsky, 2004), which are indicators of PNS arousal. Feeling safe is likewise associ-
ated with PNS arousal.

Moreover, a coachee generally recognizes that coaching may have an impact on his
or her career and development. This makes it likely that the coachee will appraise his
or her coaching sessions as important events, which will make him or her attach more

Boyatzis et al. 163

significance to what occurs in them. Consequently, the focus on the Ideal Self and the
sense of being cared for will lead to an even more intense arousal of the PEA than they
normally would (Figure 2)

Proposition 1: Coaching with compassion will be significantly related to
(a) greater positive than negative emotional arousal and (b) greater PNS
than SNS activation in the person being coached over the course of the
coaching session.

Arousing the Negative Emotional Attractor
We contend that the NEA is a state of negative emotional arousal in which the neuro-
endocrine system is dominated by the SNS. Physiologically and psychologically, it
can be best understood as a state of stress and defensiveness (Sapolsky, 2004). Arousal
of the SNS releases several endocrines, such as epinephrine and norepinephrine, into
the blood stream (Sapolsky, 2004). This leads to an increase in pulse rate and blood
pressure while blood flow is reallocated to neural circuits considered necessary for
survival and decreased in other neural circuits (DeQuattro & Feng, 2002). Cortisol is
released to help with inflammation, but it also overexcites neurons and inhibits normal

Coach Person Being Coached

P6:

PEA > NEA

Organizational
Commitment

Organizational
Citizenship
Behavior

P6:

P7:

Coaching with
Compassion

P1a:

P3:P1b:
High Quality
Connections

P8:

• Physical Health
• Well-Being
• Sustained Desired

ChangeNEA > PEA

P5:

–

Coaching for
Compliance

Negative>Positive
Emotional Arousal

P4:P2a:

SNS > PNS
Activation

P2b:

PEA–Positive Emotional Attractor NEA–Negative Emotional Attractor
PNS–Parasympathetic Nervous System SNS–Sympathetic Nervous System

Positive > Negative
EmotionalArousal

PNS > SNS
Activation

Figure 2. Coaching with compassion versus coaching for compliance.

164 The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 49(2)

neurogenesis (Eriksson et al., 1998; Sapolsky, 2004). The arousal of the SNS has been
shown to be associated with negative emotions, such as fear, disgust, and anxiety
(Dickerson & Kemeny, 2004).

Like the PEA, the NEA is self-perpetuating. Negative affect causes a focus on prob-
lems, threats, or obligations (Fredrickson, 2001). In this state, one tends to perceive
neutral stimuli as dangerous. For instance, others’ neutral facial expression are more
likely to be interpreted as hostile or aggressive (Porges, 2001).These cognitions, in
turn, arouse negative emotions, such as fear, resulting in a self-reinforcing feedback
loop that persists until a tipping point is achieved.

We contend that coaching for compliance, on the whole, arouses the NEA more
than the PEA in the coachee by encouraging or pressuring the coachee to make changes
desired by the organization or the coach, but not necessarily by the coachee. This
arouses the Ought Self and invokes obligation and guilt, which in turn, invoke stress
and negative emotions (Higgins, 1987). Take, for example, the scenario where a top
performing salesperson is coached by her manager to move into a sales management
role because it is the next logical step in her career progression and because the com-
pany needs people like her in management. If she in fact loves being an individual
contributor and has no desire to manage people, then being coached to take on that
new role because it is what she ought to do is likely to create NEA arousal and lead to
an unsatisfying and ultimately unsuccessful experience.

Coaching for compliance does not necessarily begin with the coach wanting to
obligate the coachee to make certain changes. It may start with good intentions. But
the process or prior relational context may result in the coachee reacting with guilt,
defensiveness, or powerless compliance, all aspects of NEA arousal. This often occurs
when physicians advise patients to make lifestyle changes to avoid serious health
problems: even though the doctor has the patient’s health and wellness in mind, the
patient often experiences the advice as an imperative that tends to activate the NEA.
This is probably one reason why following physicians’ instructions for treatment, or
treatment adherence, for most serious diseases is surprisingly low (Khawaja, 2011).

Deficiency-based coaching, we contend, also arouses the NEA by focusing the
coachee on his or her weaknesses and deficiencies. If, for instance, an employee is
doing nearly everything well but is coached by his manager or another coach exclu-
sively on how to work on that area in which he is deficient, then that coaching will
likely put him into a state of NEA arousal. And, because negative emotions can easily
overwhelm positive ones (Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Finkenauer, & Vohs, 2001), even
drawing equal attention to strengths and weaknesses might arouse the individual’s
NEA more than PEA. Finally, as we argued above, coaching sessions generally are
appraised as important events by coachees, and thus the arousal of the NEA will likely
be more intense in coaching situations than under other conditions.

Proposition 2: Coaching for compliance and deficiency-based coaching will be
significantly related to (a) greater negative than positive emotional arousal
and (b) greater SNS than PNS activation in the person being coached over
the course of the coaching session.

Boyatzis et al. 165

Enduring Outcomes of Coaching

While the PEA and NEA are ephemeral states, coaching can have enduring impacts
on the individual being coached. Like Fredrickson (Fredrickson, 1998; Fredrickson &
Joiner, 2002), we believe that the positive effects of positive emotions accrue over
time within individuals, in dyads and organizations. We consider the same to be true
of the effects of negative emotions. We contend that some PEA or NEA experiences
have a far greater impact on lasting outcomes than others. We support our argument
with affective events theory.

Affective events theory (AET) asserts that events are the proximal causes of affec-
tive experiences (Weiss & Beal, 2005; Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996). Furthermore, it
claims that the more salient the event the greater its impact on affect (Weiss & Beal,
2005). The individual’s affective reaction to an event depends on the degree that the
event is “perceived to promote or impinge upon personal well-being” or goals (Ashton-
James & Ashkanasy, 2005, p. 24). Both salient positive organizational events (e.g.,
promotions) and salient negative events (e.g., downsizing) leave a lasting emotional
impression and influence one’s future experiences within the organization (Weiss &
Beal, 2005).

Because the coachee is likely to see the coaching process as having important
implications for career or life goals, it is likely they will experience each coaching
session as a salient affective event (Weiss & Beal, 2005). Therefore, we expect the
effects of the arousal of the PEA to be substantial and enduring. A preliminary study
using a state-of-the-art brain scanning technology called functional magnetic reso-
nance imaging (fMRI) lends support to this claim. Half an hour of coaching that
focused on the participants’ long-term dreams, as compared with half an hour of
coaching that focused on their problems and deficiencies, activated neural circuits
associated with imagining and more cognitive and perceptual openness when par-
ticipants recalled the session several days later (Boyatzis, Jack, Cesaro, Khawaja, &
Passarelli, 2010).

In addition to having a positive effect on health, well-being, and cognitive func-
tions, as discussed above, arousal of the PEA can help an individual make important
changes in his or her life and sustain them over time. For example, making lifestyle
changes can be a matter of life and death for people who suffer from serious disorders
or diseases. Despite this, treatment adherence for such diseases is low. Treatment
adherence for type II diabetes is about 50% worldwide (Khawaja, 2011). In one study,
however, patients with type II diabetes reporting that their interactions with their phy-
sicians had led to PEA arousal was associated with significantly higher treatment
adherence (Khawaja, 2011).

A skilled coach can amplify the enduring effects of PEA arousal. If the coach suc-
ceeds in creating a safe space and establishing a trusting relationship, the experience
will be even more emotionally salient for the coachee. This kind of support, called a
“secure base” in attachment theory terms (Bowlby, 1969), is known to have a lasting
effect on well-being, willingness to take risks and try new things, and development. If
the coach is able to help the coachee articulate a compelling personal vision, this

166 The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 49(2)

Furthermore, the effects of PEA arousal can be amplified by the coachee learning
from the coach the attitudes, skills, and behaviors that the latter employs during coach-
ing. Because the PEA is a state in which cognitive openness, flexibility, and learning
are enhanced, we expect the coachee to be more open to learning from the coach. The
coachee might, for example, develop the cognitive skill of positive reappraisal
(Folkman & Moskowitz, 2000) by observing the coach apply it. After the coaching
session, the coachee can use this positive reappraisal skill when encountering new
problems.

In sum, we expect coaching with compassion to lead to a significant, positive
impact on the coachee’s physical health, well-being, and sustained, desired change by
arousing the PEA more than the NEA.3

Proposition 3: Coaching with compassion will be positively related to (a) physi-
cal health, (b) well-being, and (c) sustained desired change in the person
being coached. These relationships will be mediated by greater PEA than
NEA arousal in the coachee.

Similarly, coaching for compliance and deficiency-based coaching are also likely
to be emotionally salient events for the coachee. Stress trends to be aroused when
focusing on goals that are not self-concordant or on deficiencies. Negative events have
greater and longer lasting effects on subsequent moods (Baumeister et al., 2001), so
these stress effects persist. If the coachee lacks high quality relationships to encourage
them and help them recover from the negative experiences, it is possible for them to
reexperience arousal of the NEA for some time after the coaching for compliance
process. Indeed, Boyatzis et al.’s (2010) fMRI study showed that a coaching session
that focused on performance problems and stressful experiences led to activation of
regions of the brain that are associated with SNS arousal when participants recalled
the session several days later.

This, we propose, would have a significant deleterious effect on the coachee’s
physical health, well-being, and any desired change processes.

Proposition 4: Coaching for compliance and deficiency-based coaching will be
negatively related to (a) physical health, (b) well-being, and (c) sustained
desired change in the person being coached. These relationships will be
mediated by greater NEA than PEA arousal in the coachee.

Boyatzis et al. 167

The Effects of Coaching With Compassion

Beyond the effects on the coachee, in this section we will focus on the impact of coach-
ing with compassion at other dyadic and organizational levels. The organizational out-
comes we discuss assume that the coachee’s organization is sponsoring the coaching.
We also consider the consequences of the coach being the coachee’s direct superior.

Effects of Coaching Within the Dyad
As a result of emotional contagion within the coaching dyad, we believe the coach will
experience the same psychophysiological benefits as the coachee. Emotional contagion
is how one person’s emotions spread to others. Since Hatfield, Cacioppo, and Rapson
(1993) described this phenomenon, numerous studies have established that contagion
affects people in teams and organizations (e.g., Barsade, 2002). Emotional contagion is
believed to be one aspect of mimicry, the tendency to copy the nonverbal behavior of
those with whom one interacts (Barsade & Gibson, 2007). This capability is attributed
to specific regions of the brain, including the mirror neuron network (Cattaneo &
Rizzolatti, 2009) and the Default Mode Network (Buckner, Andrews-Hanna, &
Schacter, 2008). When observing another’s actions, these neurons activate in the same
way they would if one were performing those actions oneself. Hence, they enable learn-
ing from others by observation. Neurological studies have shown that emotional conta-
gion may occur in milliseconds, which means that one person’s emotional state can
arouse similar emotions in another person with whom they interact before either one
becomes aware of the emotion (Iacoboni, 2009; LeDoux, 2002).

In the context of coaching, the coach’s focused attention on the coachee makes the
coach particularly receptive to the coachee’s emotions. Whether the coaching process
affects the arousal of the PEA or NEA in the person being coached, it can be expected
that the coachee’s psychophysiological arousal will, in turn, activate a similar state in
the coach via emotional contagion.

Proposition 5: The emotional arousal and activation of the neuroendocrine sys-
tem of the coach will mirror the emotional arousal and activation of the neu-
roendocrine system of the person being coached.

The same arguments can be made about the emotions of the coach spreading to the
coachee. Because of this emotional feedback loop, coaching with compassion and
coaching for compliance each beget more of the same.

The coachee’s emotions are also likely to spread to others within the organization
with whom he or she interacts frequently (Barsade, 2002). If the coachee is in a leader-
ship position within the organization, the diffusion of emotions will be amplified
among his or her subordinates, since people show closer attention to the emotions of
their leaders (Barsade & Gibson, 2007).

168 The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 49(2)

Organizational Outcomes of Coaching With Compassion

We have argued that in coaching with compassion, the coachee is likely to feel valued
and cared about by the coach. Since the coaching is enabled by the organization, the
coachee is likely to make the same attributions about the organization as a whole.
Whether the coach is external to the organization, a peer (Parker et al., 2008), the
coachee’s boss, or from a different unit in the organization, the coachee will tend to
associate the organization with the coach and transfer his or her attributions about the
coach to the organization. Research on perceived organizational support, the construct
that best describes feeling valued and cared for by one’s organization, indicates that
when employees feel that their organization is committed to them, they feel more
committed to the organization (Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison, & Sowa, 1986).
We expect coachees to feel greater commitment to their organization as a result of
coaching with compassion.

Research on leader–member exchange (LMX; Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995) has shown
that having a positive relationship with one’s manager and feeling supported by him or
her leads to greater engagement, commitment, and willingness to remain in the orga-
nization (Dirks & Ferrin, 2002). Hence, we predict that if the coach is the coachee’s
boss, the positive impact on the coachee’s organizational commitment would, there-
fore, be even stronger.

The experience of compassion within the context of coaching is an experience of
being the recipient of another’s generosity and care. Fowler and Christakis (2010)
have shown that beneficiaries of benevolent or generous behavior become more
altruistic and generous toward others, often by replicating the generous behavior
they experienced. Research has also shown that positive mood leads employees to
engage in more in-role and extra-role prosocial behavior (Barsade & Gibson, 2007).
Furthermore, we expect coachees to behave more frequently toward others in the
organization in a similar way to how their coaches behaved toward them, that is,
with compassion. This would include paying more attention to others’ distress as
well as excitement or desire to achieve a goal, listening to others more attentively,
showing greater empathy and care, and being more willing to help. These types of
positive social interactions could be called compassionate interrelating. Many of the
behaviors involved are clearly examples of organizational citizenship behaviors
(OCB), discretionary, extra-role prosocial behaviors (Organ & Ryan, 1995). In addi-
tion to performing OCB toward their colleagues, we expect coachees to perform
more OCB toward the organization as a whole, because of their increased organiza-
tional commitment (Organ & Ryan, 1995). Finally, we expect the increased positive
emotions and prosocial behaviors toward others to lead to coachees building stron-
ger and more trusting, supportive, and meaningful relationships with their colleagues
(Dutton & Heaphy, 2003).

Proposition 6: Coaching with compassion will be positively related to higher
organizational commitment in the coachee.

Boyatzis et al. 169

Proposition 7: Coaching with compassion will be positively related to more
organizational citizenship behavior in the coachee.

Proposition 8: Coaching with compassion will be positively related to more high
quality relationships between the coachee and others in the organization.

Discussion and Implications
In this article, we have sought to enrich theorizing on coaching and its outcomes, and
to a lesser degree, theorizing on compassion. We argued that coaching with compas-
sion arouses the PEA, a state of positive emotional arousal and activation of the PNS,
while coaching for compliance and deficit-based coaching arouse the NEA, a state of
negative emotional arousal and activation of the SNS. We then proposed that these
ephemeral states can have enduring impacts on individual outcomes, such as physical
health, well-being, and sustained desired change. We also argued that emotional con-
tagion causes the coachee’s emotional arousal to affect a similar state in the coach
creating a positive feedback loop within the coaching dyad. Finally, we proposed that
coaching with compassion would lead to greater organizational commitment, more
frequent organizational citizenship, and more high quality relationships within the
organization for the coachee.

We also presented an expanded view of compassion that challenges and extends the
predominant conceptualization in three ways. First, we argued that the assumption that
compassion must always be a response to distress, pain, or suffering should be reconsid-
ered. Second, we distinguished responses to others needs driven by concern for the other
from those that are driven by concern for the self, which we argued is not compassion.
Third, we argued that in addition to elevating the emotional state of another, compassion
can have as its purpose helping another grow and develop. We offered that it would be
more useful to think of furthering the well-being of another as the purpose of compas-
sion instead of simply the alleviation of pain, since this encompasses both hedonic and
eudaimonic well-being. We view this set of theoretical contributions not as a contradic-
tion to, but instead an extension of, prior theorizing on compassion in organizations.

Thus far, we have only focused on the effects of coaching with compassion on the
dyad of the coach and coachee. However, several streams of research suggest that the
effects can easily “spill over” unto other members of the organization and affect the
organization as a whole as well. Recent research has shown that attitudes and behav-
iors can spread from one person to others much like emotions (Cacioppo, Fowler, &
Christakis, 2009; Fowler & Christakis, 2008, 2010), a phenomenon that some have
called social contagion. Importantly, social contagion can influence others through
direct as well as indirect ties (Fowler & Christakis, 2008, 2010). This suggests that the
coachee’s increased organizational commitment, OCB, and high-quality relationships
could spread to others in the organization who are not themselves being coached. For
example, Fowler and Christakis’ (2010) study showing that cooperative behavior cas-
cades indicates that people who are treated with compassion by the coachee are more
likely to treat others likewise.

170 The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 49(2)

Future research should examine whether the effects of coaching with compassion
do indeed spread to other members of the organization, and whether this could lead to
the emergence of what might be a called a culture of compassion.

A limitation of this article is that we have not addressed potential cultural and eth-
nic differences in the socially perceived acceptability of showing compassion at work.
Such behavior might be seen as weak or inappropriate behavior on the part of a man-
ager or executive in high power distance or more masculine cultures (Hofstede, 1991).
Similarly, there may be gender differences in the acceptability of male coaches show-
ing compassion to female coachees or vice versa.

Implications for Practice
We have suggested that institutionalizing coaching with compassion in an organization’s
routines could lead to transformative change in its culture and the way its members
interrelate. Such an embedding could be achieved by having leaders within the organiza-
tion be coached and trained on how to effectively coach others with compassion. These
leaders could then model the behavior as they coach their direct reports for their per-
sonal development and growth and prepare them to, in turn, cascade that coaching
behavior to others in the organization. Not only would this enhance the coaching taking
place in direct reporting relationships throughout the organization, but it would also
likely lead to increased instances of peer coaching, which has been has been shown to
be an effective means of personal and professional development (Parker et al., 2008). In
fact, peer coaching due to its relational nature and the lack of a performance account-
ability element represents an ideal context for coaching with compassion.

In addition to spreading the practice of coaching with compassion throughout the
organization via modeling and through the effects of emotional and social contagion,
organizations could also facilitate the spread of this behavior though specific organi-
zational interventions and HR practices. For example, compelling stories of effective
peer coaching and the related outcomes could be highlighted and shared via intraorga-
nizational communication platforms. Alternatively, the organization could help foster
the emergence of communities of practice around coaching, where individuals come
together for group learning and the sharing of best practices. Organizations could also

Boyatzis et al. 171

embed the competencies and behaviors associated with coaching with compassion
into the selection, development, and reward systems of the organization, signaling that
coaching others for their personal development and growth is an important and
expected practice. These are just a few of the ways in which organizations might go
about creating and sustaining a culture of coaching with compassion.

As with most organization development efforts, spread should be organic rather
than mechanical or imposed. Organic changes, in which opinion leaders and execu-
tives of units ask for a program, are likely to arouse PEA at the collective level,
opening people to even more change. When imposed organization-wide, it is almost
always experienced as compliance-oriented, arousing the NEA and closing people to
future applications.

In summary, the organizational development implication evolves from (a) more
frequent coaching with compassion, which results in (b) more people feeling cared for
and developing (as Propositions 6 to 8 claim), which results in (c) more OCB, commit-
ment, and engagement, which results in (d) better relationships, more renewal, and
openness to new ideas and possibilities. We expected that these norms would spread
organically from dyad to dyad, team to team, and organizational unit to organizational
unit. The result is a climate of caring and development and adaptation.

Implications for Research
We believe a set of qualitative studies should be conducted to further develop the
construct of compassion in organizations. Studies using the critical incident interview
method would be particularly informative. Such interviews could be conducted with
participants after they have been coached and assessing them on degree of excitement
about the future, comprehensiveness of their personal vision, and feeling cared for by
the coach. The interview protocol could be one question asked 2 to 3 times: “Tell me
about a time in your recent coaching in which you felt the coach significantly helped
you.” Study 1 could sample 25 subjects who are high on the measure of excitement
about their future and 25 low on this measure. Study 2 could sample 25 subjects who
are high on the measure of comprehensiveness of their personal vision and 25 low on
this measure. Study 3 could sample 25 subjects who are high on feeling cared for from
the coach and 25 low on this measure. Thematic analysis could be applied to interview
transcripts to determine the facets of the coach’s helpful behavior and the coachee’s
feeling about the coach.

Propositions 1, 2, and 5 could be quantitatively tested using an experimental
design. Participants could be randomly assigned to a coaching with compassion or
coaching for compliance session. Arousal of the PNS and SNS of participants and
coaches could be assessed before, during, and after the sessions using physiological
measures, such as heart rate variability and skin conductance. Emotional arousal
during the coaching session could be assessed using analysis of facial expressions
captured with video.

Testing Propositions 3 and 4 would require a longitudinal field experiment. After
random assignment to a coaching with compassion or coaching with compliance,

172 The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 49(2)

Propositions 6, 7, and 8 could be tested with another longitudinal field experiment.
Participants’ long-term organizational commitment could be measured by examining
voluntary turnover in both groups several months or years after the coaching inter-
vention. High quality connections, resonant relationships, job and organizational
engagement and commitment, and OCB in the workplace could be measured using
multi-source feedback. A cross-sectional design could be substituted for longitudinal
designs in any of these past two sets of studies, but key variables would have to be
controlled with stratified sampling, and the hypotheses of the studies limited to that
which can be inferred from the cross-sectional sampling.

Implications for Theorizing on Compassion
As we note above, research on emotional contagion indicates that it is possible to
“catch” another’s emotions before even noticing them. One may notice the emotion
in oneself first, then notice that the source of the emotion is the other, and finally
notice the cause of the emotion. We offer that what matters as a component of com-
passion is not noticing the other’s emotions, but noticing the other. Putting it differ-
ently, it means noticing the other as a subject, in Buber’s (1971) terms as the Thou,
rather than an object, the It. The other’s emotions facilitate that recognition of the
other as a subject. Batson et al.’s (1997) work lends support to our claim. Empathic
concern, their studies show, only arises if one recognizes the separation between self
and other. Thus, the recognition of the other as a distinct subject, who suffers and who
has dreams and aspirations, is a key component.

In addition to emotion, the compassion process must involve cognitive processes,
including the appraisals mentioned by Goetz et al. (2010), such as whether or not the
suffering is deserved or one’s own responsibility. Compassion, we contend, is rooted
in the desire to contribute to another’s well-being. We offer that even outside of the
coaching context, compassion can focus on furthering another’s hedonic or eudai-
monic well-being, or both.

Finally, the motivation to further another’s well-being must lead to action. Dutton
et al. (2006) point out that sometimes the action does not succeed in easing the other’s
suffering; though ineffective, they maintain it is still an instance of compassion. Our

Boyatzis et al. 173

discussion of coaching can contribute two insights to theorizing on the effectiveness
of compassion. We claimed that coaching is successful in stimulating sustained,
desired change when it primarily arouses the PEA by focusing the coachee’s attention
on a positive desired future, which arouses hope, and by making the coachee feel val-
ued and cared for. We offer that these same two factors distinguish effective compas-
sionate responses in general.

Conclusion
Coaching with compassion will arouse positive emotions and healthy psychophysio-
logical systems, helping a person become more open to new possibilities, grow, and
renew themselves. As a result of the effects of emotional contagion, coaching with
compassion is likely to have an impact that extends beyond the coaching relationship
to others in the organization, leading to favorable outcomes at the individual, dyad,
group, and organizational levels.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship,
and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.

Notes

1. A 2006 study commissioned by the International Coach Federation (ICF) and conducted by
PricewaterhouseCoopers estimates that at least 30,000 individuals were working as busi-
ness coaches around the world at the time, generating $1.5 billion in revenue.

2. The neuroendocrine system comprises the nervous system and the endocrine or hormonal
system of the body.

3. We must point out that studies by Fredrickson (1998, 2001), Losada and Heaphy (2004),
Gottman et al. (2002), and their colleagues cited earlier suggest that 3 to 6 times more PEA
than NEA arousal is necessary to realize these effects. The exact critical ratio remains an
empirical question for future research. An fMRI study underway will examine the differ-
ential impact of 1:1, 2:1, or 3:1 ratio of PEA-to-NEA arousal during coaching sessions on
neural activation linked to openness to learning and new possibilities.

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Author Biographies

Richard E. Boyatzis is Distinguished University Professor, professor in Departments of
Organizational Behavior, Psychology, and Cognitive Science at Case Western Reserve
University, Adjunct Professor at ESADE. Having authored more than 150 articles, his books
include The Competent Manager, and two international best-sellers: Primal Leadership with
Daniel Goleman & Annie McKee; and Resonant Leadership, with McKee. His current research
is focused on neurological studies of coaching.

Melvin L. Smith is an Associate Professor of Organizational Behavior and Faculty Director of
Executive Education at Case Western Reserve University’s Weatherhead School of Management.
He received his PhD in Organizational Behavior from the University of Pittsburgh. His research
interests include the development and use of human and social capital, social exchange relation-
ships in organizations, and workplace well-being.

‘Alim J. Beveridge is a doctoral candidate in Organizational Behavior at the Weatherhead
School of Management, Case Western Reserve University. Broadly speaking, he is interested in
altruism and benevolence, at the individual and organizational levels. His research focuses on
distinguishing different levels of commitment to corporate social responsibility (CSR) and
sustainability and understanding the diffusion of social innovations and sustainability practices.
He obtained his Master’s degree in Education and Bachelor’s degree in Computer Science, both
from Stanford University.

154 The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 49(2)

growth, few empirical studies have examined the coaching process and its impact on
the coach and the person being coached and little theory has been developed around
it (Feldman & Lankau, 2005; Kampa-Kokesch & Anderson, 2001). Even fewer stud-
ies have investigated the impact of coaching on organizations that adopt this practice.
In this theoretical article, we extend the work of Boyatzis, Smith, and Blaize (2006)
by adopting their distinction between two broad approaches to coaching and articu-
lating the impact of each on both the coach and the person being coached, whom we
call the coachee. We also propose how one approach, coaching with compassion,
affects the organization and its openness to organizational change. Furthermore, we
offer an expanded view of compassion that does not require the presence of pain and
suffering.
Our experiences at work affect psychological and emotional states and the health of
our bodies. We therefore explain how the psychological, emotional, and physiological
consequences of experiencing coaching with compassion have an enduring impact on
individual health and development. In this way, we both expand current understanding
of the experience and effects of compassion and explore how our bodies are affected
by social interactions at work (Heaphy & Dutton, 2008). Finally, we discuss how
coaching with compassion affects the organization through its effect on the individu-
al’s appraisal of the organization, his or her behavior at work, and his or her relation-
ships with colleagues.
Coaching With Compassion
Various definitions of coaching have been offered. Most converge on its being a
“facilitative or helping relationship with the purpose of achieving some type of
change, learning, or new level of individual or organizational performance” (Smith et
al., 2009, p. 150). Because this definition could also describe mentoring, we distin-
guish the two by clarifying that coaching involves a shorter term duration and a more
specific focus (Smith et al., 2009). Unlike other scholars (e.g., Sue-Chan, Wood, &
Latham, 2012), we refer to an explicit dyadic coaching process. This means that both
coach and coachee are aware of participating in such a process. Although the coaching
often takes place during determined coaching sessions, it sometimes occurs walking
to or from meetings, at lunch, or in other less formal sessions. With this in mind, the
coach might be a formal internal or external coach, a boss, or, as recent research has
suggested (Parker, Hall, & Kram, 2008), a peer.
Several recent studies suggest that it is the general orientation or approach to coach-
ing, rather than specific techniques or behaviors, that predicts important outcomes,
such as increased learning and performance (de Haan, Culpin, & Curd, 2011; Sue-
Chan et al., 2012). Consistent with these studies, we focus on general types or
approaches to coaching. Specifically, we primarily theorize about an approach known
as coaching with compassion (Boyatzis et al., 2006). We define compassion as an
interpersonal process that involves noticing another person as being in need, empa-
thizing with him or her, and acting to enhance his or her well-being in response to that

Boyatzis et al. 155
need. We will elaborate on this simple definition in a subsequent section. Compassion,
we claim, is a key component of coaching with compassion.
The hallmark of coaching with compassion is the focus on invoking the Ideal Self
to initiate and guide the change process. The Ideal Self is the individual’s vision of
who he or she wants to be and includes hir or her goals, values, and deepest aspirations
for the individual’s future (Boyatzis, 2008; Boyatzis & Akrivou, 2006; Higgins, 1987).
The starting point of coaching with compassion is helping the coachee develop or
articulate a compelling personal vision. Research on visioning has shown that it helps
guide future behavior (Roffe, Schmidt, & Ernst, 2005), arouses hope, and increases
athletic and academic performance (Curry, Snyder, Cook, Ruby, & Rehm, 1997;
Snyder, Rand, & Sigmon, 2002). Following the articulation of the Ideal Self, the coach
may help the coachee take stock of their current situation, identify required changes,
and make a realistic and exciting plan to implement these changes.
A second important characteristic of coaching with compassion is the focus on
identifying current strengths before considering weaknesses. Thus, it incorporates
strength-based development (Roberts, Dutton, Spreitzer, Heaphy, & Quinn, 2005).
However, coaching with compassion is more than a simple sequence of steps. To be
successful, the coach must establish a trusting relationship with the coachee, so they
discuss their hopes and dreams openly, and develop in them a sense of safety to explore
new thinking and behavior (Brotman, Liberi, & Wasylyshyn, 1998).
Coaching with compassion can be distinguished from three other basic types of
coaching. First, because of its primary objective to further the coachee’s growth and
development it stands in contrast to instrumental coaching. The objective of instru-
mental coaching is to influence the coachee to change to better fit the goals of the
organization, their manager, or perhaps the coach, rather than their own. Providing
advice to someone to help improve his or her performance, trying to convince that
individual to accept a particular assignment, or putting pressure on him or her to act
more consistently with organizational norms are all focused on influencing the coachee
to do something desired by others. To be clear, coaching with compassion may involve
both focusing on furthering the coachee’s development and serving an organizational
need. The critical factor is whether or not the coachee’s own goals and view of his or
her development is taken into account.
Second, coaching with compassion is distinct from coaching that aims to help the
coachee develop but omits the focus on the coachee’s Ideal Self. When a coach
points to something that the coachee should change or improve, even if the intention
is to further the coachee’s good, the coach is prescribing what the coachee should do.
According to self-discrepancy theory, in such situations, the coachee focuses on the
Ought Self, which often comes into conflict with the Ideal Self (Brockner & Higgins,
2001; Higgins, 1987; Higgins, Roney, Crowe, & Hymes, 1994). The theory predicts
that when people to whom one turns for help, or those with more organizational
power suggest an Ought Self, one feels pressure to comply. This can ensue even
from well-intentioned, ostensibly helpful behavior, such as helping a person net-
work or calling someone to ask for an interview on behalf of the coachee. Such

156 The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 49(2)

helping behavior can have unintended negative consequences if the aims are not
“self-concordant” (i.e., not in alignment with the coachee’s own goals and aspira-
tions, Ryan & Deci, 2001). A focus on the coachee’s Ideal Self is therefore a sine qua
non of coaching with compassion.
Third, coaching with compassion differs from approaches that attempt to stimulate
the coachee’s development by focusing on deficiencies. Coaching and mentoring pro-
grams and performance reviews often adopt this focus on deficits. Coaching with com-
passion, in contrast, puts a greater emphasis on the coachee’s strengths than his or her
weaknesses.
To summarize, we define coaching with compassion as a process that aims to fur-
ther the coachee’s development by focusing on their Ideal Self and on their strengths
more than their weaknesses. Instrumental coaching and coaching toward the Ought
Self can be called coaching for compliance, defined as coaching another to comply
with an authority’s or an organization’s view of how they should act, often inducing a
defensiveness or sense of guilt (Boyatzis et al., 2006). We argue that coaching with
compassion leads to more positive outcomes than coaching for compliance and defi-
cit-based coaching.
To support our claim that coaching with compassion is an instance of compassion,
we next present a theoretical discussion of our expanded view of compassion.
An Expanded View of Compassion
Our concept of compassion builds on Boyatzis et al.’s (2006) proposition that compas-
sion consists of (a) empathizing with the other, (b) caring for the other, and (c) acting
in response to the other’s feelings. In this section, we examine these three components
and argue for the adoption of a more encompassing view of each.
In the management literature, the most widely accepted definition of compassion
consists of three components: (a) noticing or attending to another’s suffering; (b) other-
regarding feelings such as empathic concern; and (c) acting to ease the suffering
(Dutton, Worline, Frost, & Lilius, 2006; Frost, Dutton, Worline, & Wilson, 2000;
Kanov et al., 2004). There is no apparent relationship between this definition and
coaching unless one were to conceive of coaching as a remedial intervention. Yet,
coaching, like other developmental relationships, is not always focused on helping the
beneficiary overcome a problem; nor is the coachee necessarily in distress at the out-
set. Coaches are often asked to help someone attain an important goal or more fully
realize their potential, even when there is no “problem” to be resolved.
Social scientists do not fully agree on the definition of compassion. In a recent
review, Goetz, Keltner, and Simon-Thomas (2010) contend that compassion is a
unique, discrete emotional state that, along with sympathy, pity, and empathic con-
cern, can be placed in a family of emotions that center “upon a concern for ameliorat-
ing the suffering of another individual” (p. 352). As mentioned above, the most
common definition in the management literature holds that compassion is a dynamic,
relational process of noticing, feeling, and responding to the pain or suffering of

Boyatzis et al. 157
another (e.g., Dutton et al., 2006). While the two definitions differ, they have in com-
mon the assumption that compassion is always a response to the distress, pain, or suf-
fering of another.
We argue, however, that the first component of compassion should be viewed as
noticing another’s need or desire, which is more general than pain or distress. The use
of the term compassion, both in everyday language and in scholarly writing, implies
that it need not be exclusively linked to distress, pain, or suffering. Studies of lay con-
ceptions of compassion have shown that English speakers most often group the word
compassion with terms, such as love, tenderness, and caring (Shaver, Schwartz,
Kirson, & O’Connor, 1987), none of which imply a response to pain or distress. Within
the academic literature, the term compassion often appears together with other terms,
such as care, caregiving, caretaking, tenderness, warmth, cooperating, and helping
(e.g., Batson & Shaw, 1991; Goetz et al., 2010; Kanov et al., 2004; Lilius et al., 2008).
None of these are exclusively triggered by distress and pain. While caregiving is per-
formed toward someone who is unable to fully care for himself or herself, most recipi-
ents of caregiving are not in a constant state of distress, pain, or suffering.
We find that Buddhist philosophy of mind also supports our view. Compassion
within the Buddhist tradition is a response to dukkha, a Pali word that has often been
translated as suffering. However, many scholars of Buddhism have pointed out that
the translation is inaccurate. The original term encompasses a range of experience,
from pain and suffering to unease and disquietude (Coseru, 2011; Olson, 2009).
Consequently, some modern translations use the term unsatisfactoriness instead.
Disquietude and unsatisfactoriness include both negative experience, such as exis-
tential unease, and positive ones, such as the desire to self-actualize. This inner
experience of disquietude may be noticed by another even if it does not result in an
arousal of negative emotion.
We concede that it is likely that in our evolutionary history, compassion was once
an emotional response that could only be triggered by others’ pain and distress (Goetz
et al., 2010). However, over time, the functions of many emotions have expanded. For
example, Haidt, Rozin, Mccauley, and Imada (1997) propose that the function of dis-
gust has expanded from only protecting us from physically harmful substances to also
protecting us from what is socially deemed as harmful. They argue that early in human
evolutionary history, disgust exclusively served to prevent the swallowing or inhaling
of substances that could be poisonous or otherwise dangerous, and induce vomiting if
a harmful substance had been swallowed. Modern humans, however, also react with
disgust to things that are considered morally reprehensible to them.
We contend that the function of compassion has similarly expanded. Goetz et al.
(2010) for example, claim that one of compassion’s functions is the “maintenance of
cooperative relationships” (p. 365). Cooperative relationships would be ineffective if
the parties involved only helped each other when the other was in pain. If compassion
were only triggered by distress and pain, it would not be sufficient to maintain a
cooperative relationship. Our contemporary societies require that we invest heavily
in cooperation and in helping and developing each other, even when there are no

158 The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 49(2)

kinship ties and no promise of reward or reciprocation. The function of compassion
has conceivably expanded, such that now, sensing another’s strong desire to achieve
some goal or aspiration may trigger it just as readily as sensing another’s pain or
distress may.
The second component of compassion, in our view, must be empathic concern.
Batson, Early, and Salvarani (1997) have shown that there are two basic responses to
observing another’s distress. Imagining what it would feel like to be “in the shoes” of
the other produces distress. In contrast, imagining what the other must be feeling leads
to empathic concern (Batson et al., 1997). Importantly, in the first situation, if the
observer lends a hand, it is to reduce his or her own distress while empathic concern
leads to helping behavior motivated by reducing the other’s distress (Batson & Shaw,
1991). Current theorizing on compassion fails to distinguish between these two moti-
vations behind helping behavior. We contend that the first case is not compassion
while the second is. In fact, we contend that being motivated by a desire to alleviate
one’s own distress is similar to coaching for compliance: coaching guided by the orga-
nization’s or the coach’s needs, rather than a response to the coachee’s desires or
aspirations.
While the studies cited above focused on situations involving distress, in other
studies, Batson has shown empathic concern to be a response to another’s need as
well. Moreover, in other scholars’ work, empathic concern is associated with behav-
iors that are not necessarily responses to others’ suffering, such as generosity and kind-
ness (e.g., Koestner, Franz, & Weinberger, 1990).
Finally, we propose an alternative view of the third component of compassion. In a
recent review, Ryan and Deci (2001) distinguished between two conceptions of well-
being: hedonic, which is centered on pleasure or the absence of pain, and eudaimonic,
which is centered on self-actualization. In current theorizing, which sees compassion
as a response to another’s pain and suffering, the focus of the third component is only
on increasing hedonic well-being. In our view, compassion can be directed toward
both forms of well-being. When compassion begins with noticing another’s desire to
grow, then the motivation may focus on furthering that person’s eudaimonic well-
being, in other words, supporting his or her development and growth.
In Figure 1, we provide an illustration of our expanded conceptualization of com-
passion and its relation to the concepts of sympathy and empathy. Sympathy, we argue,
is a passive response to the negative emotion of another. We suggest that empathy, on
the other hand, is more encompassing in that it represents an ability to accurately per-
ceive and relate to the emotions of another, be they positive or negative (Levenson &
Ruef, 1992). The traditional view of compassion may be seen as an extension of sym-
pathy. It is an active response to one’s understanding and caring about the negative
emotion experienced by another. Our expanded view of compassion, however, is more
appropriately viewed as an extension of empathy. As we have argued, we see compas-
sion as an active response to the needs of another, whether that be represented by a
positive or a negative emotional state. Under the traditional view of compassion, a
manager might notice that an employee is down due to the loss of a loved one and

Boyatzis et al. 159
attempt to comfort him or her in the time of grief. Under our expanded view, we sug-
gest that a manager might also demonstrate compassion by, for example, noticing that
employees are excited about the possibility of moving to a new role in the organiza-
tion, and then helping them understand what they need to do to effectively prepare and
position themselves for that new role. To summarize, we posit that compassion is an
interpersonal process composed of (a) noticing another’s need, (b) feeling empathic
concern for the other person, and (c) actively responding to enhance his or her
well-being.
What we offer is a more generalized view of compassion that encompasses existing
definitions while allowing for a broader understanding of human need and responses
to need. In the context of coaching, the need of the other may be born from pain or may
reflect a desire to be consistent with certain values, a personal dream or a vision. The
response to that need may aim to enhance the other’s hedonic or eudaimonic well-
being, or both. What connects the trigger and the response in a way that demonstrates
compassion is genuine empathic concern or care for the other. Therefore, we offer two
definitions:
1. Compassion is present in coaching when the coach empathically responds to
a coachee’s (a) need for the alleviation of pain or suffering; or (b) desire to
develop or grow; and
2. Compassion is experienced by a coachee when he or she perceives that the
coach is expressing empathic concern in responding to his or her (a) pain or
suffering; or (b) desire to develop or grow.
Figure 1. An expanded view of compassion.

160 The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 49(2)

Psychophysiological Aspects of Coaching
The different outcomes of the approaches to coaching we discuss are rooted in distinct
psychological and physiological processes. We build our arguments regarding these
processes on two theoretical psychophysiological states: the positive and negative
emotional attractors (Boyatzis, 2008). They are called “attractors” in reference to
strange or chaotic attractors in Lorenz’s terms (Érdi, 2008). Strange attractors are
generated by the complex, dynamic and recursive interactions among tightly coupled
components. They are sensitive to specific changes that, though small, can cause dis-
proportionate shifts. These changes are commonly called tipping points.
Based on complexity theory, we theorize that the positive emotional attractor (PEA)
and negative emotional attractor (NEA) are self-regulating and stabilizing states that
self-propagate until a tipping point produces a shift from one to the other. That is, a
person is pulled into the sphere of influence of one attractor by a tipping point and
remains there until another tipping point is reached (Boyatzis, 2008). The effects of a
tipping point being reached may be visible in a person’s nonverbal behavior. We have
often watched a person we are coaching start the session with their arms crossed or
slightly leaning back in their chair. Once we ask them about their ideal life or core
values, they lean forward, open their arms, and begin talking with animation, energy,
and often a smile on their face. The question about their dreams was a tipping point in
moving them from the NEA into the PEA.
The three components making up these attractors are (a) the degree of positive
versus negative emotions aroused; (b) the intensity of emotional arousal; and (c) the
degree of parasympathetic nervous system versus sympathetic nervous system arousal.
We deliberately employ the PEA and NEA constructs rather than positive and negative
emotions because the PEA/NEA model encompasses both affective experience and
physiological activation.
Russell and Carroll (1999), using meta-analysis and mathematical critique, argued
that positive and negative affect are not merely bipolar. Following their recommenda-
tion, in the PEA/NEA model, the experience of emotion is captured with a dimension
for the intensity of arousal in addition to a dimension representing positive versus
negative emotional arousal.
The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems are two distinct branches
of the autonomic nervous systems, the system that controls most of the functions of
the body that are not under conscious control, such as heart rate, breathing rate,
digestion, and perspiration (Janig & Habler, 1999). The sympathetic nervous system
(SNS) is activated when the body goes into a response to stress. The parasympa-
thetic nervous system (PNS) is activated when the body is calm and in renewal.
While arousal of the SNS and the PNS are not mutually exclusive, researchers have
argued that they have a suppressing effect on each other (McEwen, 1998; Sapolsky,
2004). Thus, one of the two types of arousal will generally dominate the body’s
functioning at any point.

Boyatzis et al. 161
The PEA/NEA model is related to, yet distinct from, other scholars’ depictions of
emotions as dynamic, complex systems. Losada and Heaphy (2004) used nonlinear
equations to model the relationship between team performance and three characteris-
tics of intra-team interactions, one of which was the ratio of positive to negative utter-
ances. While there are similarities between the PEA/NEA and the strange attractor
they discovered in high performing teams, which they linked to a positivity to negativ-
ity (P/N) ratio of 2.9 or higher, there are also important differences. Their work focused
only on teams and they made no claim that this dynamic system also applies to the
intra-individual or dyadic levels. Furthermore, they did not incorporate physiological
data into their system.
Gottman, Murray, Swanson, Tyson, and Swanson (2002) used an attractor concept
to capture the impact of the emotions aroused in stable, loving marriages. Their model
has two components similar to the PEA/NEA model, which are the ratio of positive to
negative emotions aroused and degree of emotional intensity in the spouses’ attempts
at influencing each other. They found that healthy marriages, as opposed to those that
ended in divorce or separate lives, were distinguished by a ratio of positive to negative
emotions of 5:1 or higher. Their model differs from the PEA/NEA in two ways: it was
constructed to be applied at the dyadic level only and it does not incorporate physio-
logical factors as a component.
Fredrickson’s (1998, 2001) broaden-and-build theory posits that positive emotions
create an upward spiral that continuously increases well-being and builds psychologi-
cal resources. This is similar to the self-perpetuating nature of the PEA/NEA and the
psychophysiological processes that play a central role in the theory. A difference
between broaden-and-build and PEA/NEA is that the former makes claims about
within-individual, across-occasions processes (Nickerson, 2006) while the latter
describes within-individual, within- and across-occasion processes.
In contrast to these three models, the PEA/NEA highlights the important role
played by our bodies in our experiences and interactions with others. Moreover,
because our physiology, emotions and cognition are intertwined (LeDoux, 2002), the
PEA/NEA can be applied to emotional dynamics at the individual, dyadic, and higher
levels of analysis.
Arousing the Positive Emotional Attractor
Synthesizing research on positive emotions from many fields, we theorize that the
PEA is a state of positive affect that involves the physiological arousal of the PNS and
corresponding neuroendocrine systems.2 Arousal of the PNS slows down the heart
rate and triggers the release of several hormones into the blood, including oxytocin,
primarily in women, and vasopressin, primarily in men. These two hormones are
associated with many physiological, psychological, and social benefits (Insel, 1997;
Schulkin, 1999). Oxytocin, for instance, reduces anxiety and heightens feelings of
tenderness, attachment, and closeness to others.

162 The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 49(2)

Arousal of positive emotions and therefore the PEA will be conducive to cognitive
openness and improved cognitive performance (Ashby, Isen, & Turken, 1999; Estrada,
Isen, & Young, 1994; Isen, Daubman, & Nowicki, 1987), greater perceptual and emo-
tional openness and accuracy (Fredrickson & Branigan, 2003; Talarico, Berntsen, &
Rubin, 2009), and openness to behavior change (Janig & Habler, 1999). In this state,
an individual could experience greater physical wellness and find themselves in a
calmer, possibly elated state (Boyatzis et al., 2006; Heaphy & Dutton, 2008). They
may experience neurogenesis (the generation of new neural tissue) and the new
degrees of learning that become possible with new neurons (Eriksson et al., 1998).
The PEA acts as a self-reinforcing, self-perpetuating cycle. Positive emotions cre-
ate a positive bias in cognitions: one thinks more positive thoughts, is more optimistic
about the future, recalls positive valence memories, and attends more to positive
attributes in others (Bower & Forgas, 2001). In terms of behavior, positive emotions
lead one to be more altruistic, helpful, cooperative, and conciliatory (Barsade &
Gibson, 2007; Insel, 1997). These cognitions and behaviors in turn trigger positive
emotions (Fredrickson & Joiner, 2002), creating a positive feedback loop. This cycle
perpetuates itself, we contend, until a tipping point, such as a negative salient affec-
tive event—for instance, receiving discouraging feedback or bad news—causes a
shift into the NEA.
Coaching with compassion achieves the activation of the PEA in the coachee in two
ways. First, the PEA is triggered by the individual describing his or her ideals, dreams,
aspirations, or passions in response to the coach’s probing. Focusing on the Ideal Self
is a powerful, positive emotional event and creates the tipping point necessary for
arousing the PEA. One consequence, as discussed above, is the activation of neural
circuits that allow the coachee to consider possibilities that they might otherwise have
ignored. For instance, one executive realized that he did not have to wait until retire-
ment to move to Kenya and help his village. He identified a way to get transferred to
the international division of his current company. In addition, his company funded the
extra work for his village while he was doing his main job. Similarly, an IT executive
realized that she did not have to quit her VP position to help inner city children learn to
love computers. She took one Friday morning off per month to deliver workshops in the
local high school. Neither of these executives had considered these possibilities prior to
their coaching session; they only saw obstacles and had surrendered their dreams. This
suggests that the focus on the Ideal Self can lead to an intense arousal of the PEA.
Second, coaching with compassion would arouse the PEA because sharing their
Ideal Self with someone who listens with interest and strives to help them achieve their
aspirations is likely to invoke in the coachee a perception that the coach cares as well
as create a feeling of safety. Prior research has shown that feeling cared for is associ-
ated with lower blood pressure, enhanced immunity, overall better health (Insel, 1997;
Sapolsky, 2004), which are indicators of PNS arousal. Feeling safe is likewise associ-
ated with PNS arousal.
Moreover, a coachee generally recognizes that coaching may have an impact on his
or her career and development. This makes it likely that the coachee will appraise his
or her coaching sessions as important events, which will make him or her attach more

Boyatzis et al. 163
significance to what occurs in them. Consequently, the focus on the Ideal Self and the
sense of being cared for will lead to an even more intense arousal of the PEA than they
normally would (Figure 2)
Proposition 1: Coaching with compassion will be significantly related to
(a) greater positive than negative emotional arousal and (b) greater PNS
than SNS activation in the person being coached over the course of the
coaching session.
Arousing the Negative Emotional Attractor
We contend that the NEA is a state of negative emotional arousal in which the neuro-
endocrine system is dominated by the SNS. Physiologically and psychologically, it
can be best understood as a state of stress and defensiveness (Sapolsky, 2004). Arousal
of the SNS releases several endocrines, such as epinephrine and norepinephrine, into
the blood stream (Sapolsky, 2004). This leads to an increase in pulse rate and blood
pressure while blood flow is reallocated to neural circuits considered necessary for
survival and decreased in other neural circuits (DeQuattro & Feng, 2002). Cortisol is
released to help with inflammation, but it also overexcites neurons and inhibits normal
Coach Person Being Coached
P6:
PEA > NEA
Organizational
Commitment
Organizational
Citizenship
Behavior
P6:
P7:
Coaching with
Compassion
P1a:
P3:P1b:
High Quality
Connections
P8:
• Physical Health
• Well-Being
• Sustained Desired
ChangeNEA > PEA
P5:
+
–
Coaching for
Compliance
Negative>Positive
Emotional Arousal
P4:P2a:
SNS > PNS
Activation
P2b:
PEA–Positive Emotional Attractor NEA–Negative Emotional Attractor
PNS–Parasympathetic Nervous System SNS–Sympathetic Nervous System
Positive > Negative
EmotionalArousal
PNS > SNS
Activation
Figure 2. Coaching with compassion versus coaching for compliance.

164 The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 49(2)

neurogenesis (Eriksson et al., 1998; Sapolsky, 2004). The arousal of the SNS has been
shown to be associated with negative emotions, such as fear, disgust, and anxiety
(Dickerson & Kemeny, 2004).
Like the PEA, the NEA is self-perpetuating. Negative affect causes a focus on prob-
lems, threats, or obligations (Fredrickson, 2001). In this state, one tends to perceive
neutral stimuli as dangerous. For instance, others’ neutral facial expression are more
likely to be interpreted as hostile or aggressive (Porges, 2001).These cognitions, in
turn, arouse negative emotions, such as fear, resulting in a self-reinforcing feedback
loop that persists until a tipping point is achieved.
We contend that coaching for compliance, on the whole, arouses the NEA more
than the PEA in the coachee by encouraging or pressuring the coachee to make changes
desired by the organization or the coach, but not necessarily by the coachee. This
arouses the Ought Self and invokes obligation and guilt, which in turn, invoke stress
and negative emotions (Higgins, 1987). Take, for example, the scenario where a top
performing salesperson is coached by her manager to move into a sales management
role because it is the next logical step in her career progression and because the com-
pany needs people like her in management. If she in fact loves being an individual
contributor and has no desire to manage people, then being coached to take on that
new role because it is what she ought to do is likely to create NEA arousal and lead to
an unsatisfying and ultimately unsuccessful experience.
Coaching for compliance does not necessarily begin with the coach wanting to
obligate the coachee to make certain changes. It may start with good intentions. But
the process or prior relational context may result in the coachee reacting with guilt,
defensiveness, or powerless compliance, all aspects of NEA arousal. This often occurs
when physicians advise patients to make lifestyle changes to avoid serious health
problems: even though the doctor has the patient’s health and wellness in mind, the
patient often experiences the advice as an imperative that tends to activate the NEA.
This is probably one reason why following physicians’ instructions for treatment, or
treatment adherence, for most serious diseases is surprisingly low (Khawaja, 2011).
Deficiency-based coaching, we contend, also arouses the NEA by focusing the
coachee on his or her weaknesses and deficiencies. If, for instance, an employee is
doing nearly everything well but is coached by his manager or another coach exclu-
sively on how to work on that area in which he is deficient, then that coaching will
likely put him into a state of NEA arousal. And, because negative emotions can easily
overwhelm positive ones (Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Finkenauer, & Vohs, 2001), even
drawing equal attention to strengths and weaknesses might arouse the individual’s
NEA more than PEA. Finally, as we argued above, coaching sessions generally are
appraised as important events by coachees, and thus the arousal of the NEA will likely
be more intense in coaching situations than under other conditions.
Proposition 2: Coaching for compliance and deficiency-based coaching will be
significantly related to (a) greater negative than positive emotional arousal
and (b) greater SNS than PNS activation in the person being coached over
the course of the coaching session.

Boyatzis et al. 165
Enduring Outcomes of Coaching
While the PEA and NEA are ephemeral states, coaching can have enduring impacts
on the individual being coached. Like Fredrickson (Fredrickson, 1998; Fredrickson &
Joiner, 2002), we believe that the positive effects of positive emotions accrue over
time within individuals, in dyads and organizations. We consider the same to be true
of the effects of negative emotions. We contend that some PEA or NEA experiences
have a far greater impact on lasting outcomes than others. We support our argument
with affective events theory.
Affective events theory (AET) asserts that events are the proximal causes of affec-
tive experiences (Weiss & Beal, 2005; Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996). Furthermore, it
claims that the more salient the event the greater its impact on affect (Weiss & Beal,
2005). The individual’s affective reaction to an event depends on the degree that the
event is “perceived to promote or impinge upon personal well-being” or goals (Ashton-
James & Ashkanasy, 2005, p. 24). Both salient positive organizational events (e.g.,
promotions) and salient negative events (e.g., downsizing) leave a lasting emotional
impression and influence one’s future experiences within the organization (Weiss &
Beal, 2005).
Because the coachee is likely to see the coaching process as having important
implications for career or life goals, it is likely they will experience each coaching
session as a salient affective event (Weiss & Beal, 2005). Therefore, we expect the
effects of the arousal of the PEA to be substantial and enduring. A preliminary study
using a state-of-the-art brain scanning technology called functional magnetic reso-
nance imaging (fMRI) lends support to this claim. Half an hour of coaching that
focused on the participants’ long-term dreams, as compared with half an hour of
coaching that focused on their problems and deficiencies, activated neural circuits
associated with imagining and more cognitive and perceptual openness when par-
ticipants recalled the session several days later (Boyatzis, Jack, Cesaro, Khawaja, &
Passarelli, 2010).
In addition to having a positive effect on health, well-being, and cognitive func-
tions, as discussed above, arousal of the PEA can help an individual make important
changes in his or her life and sustain them over time. For example, making lifestyle
changes can be a matter of life and death for people who suffer from serious disorders
or diseases. Despite this, treatment adherence for such diseases is low. Treatment
adherence for type II diabetes is about 50% worldwide (Khawaja, 2011). In one study,
however, patients with type II diabetes reporting that their interactions with their phy-
sicians had led to PEA arousal was associated with significantly higher treatment
adherence (Khawaja, 2011).
A skilled coach can amplify the enduring effects of PEA arousal. If the coach suc-
ceeds in creating a safe space and establishing a trusting relationship, the experience
will be even more emotionally salient for the coachee. This kind of support, called a
“secure base” in attachment theory terms (Bowlby, 1969), is known to have a lasting
effect on well-being, willingness to take risks and try new things, and development. If
the coach is able to help the coachee articulate a compelling personal vision, this

166 The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 49(2)

vision can inspire a powerful “pull” toward sustaining efforts toward a desired future.
Moreover, people with whom the coachee has “life-giving” relationships (Dutton &
Heaphy, 2003) can remind them of their vision, listen to them when they encounter
problems, and inspire them to persist when discouraged by setbacks. In this way, the
impact of the coaching with compassion is likely to be moderated, by a number of fac-
tors, including the skill of the coach, the strength of the vision articulated, and the
coachee’s access to supportive relationships.
Furthermore, the effects of PEA arousal can be amplified by the coachee learning
from the coach the attitudes, skills, and behaviors that the latter employs during coach-
ing. Because the PEA is a state in which cognitive openness, flexibility, and learning
are enhanced, we expect the coachee to be more open to learning from the coach. The
coachee might, for example, develop the cognitive skill of positive reappraisal
(Folkman & Moskowitz, 2000) by observing the coach apply it. After the coaching
session, the coachee can use this positive reappraisal skill when encountering new
problems.
In sum, we expect coaching with compassion to lead to a significant, positive
impact on the coachee’s physical health, well-being, and sustained, desired change by
arousing the PEA more than the NEA.3
Proposition 3: Coaching with compassion will be positively related to (a) physi-
cal health, (b) well-being, and (c) sustained desired change in the person
being coached. These relationships will be mediated by greater PEA than
NEA arousal in the coachee.
Similarly, coaching for compliance and deficiency-based coaching are also likely
to be emotionally salient events for the coachee. Stress trends to be aroused when
focusing on goals that are not self-concordant or on deficiencies. Negative events have
greater and longer lasting effects on subsequent moods (Baumeister et al., 2001), so
these stress effects persist. If the coachee lacks high quality relationships to encourage
them and help them recover from the negative experiences, it is possible for them to
reexperience arousal of the NEA for some time after the coaching for compliance
process. Indeed, Boyatzis et al.’s (2010) fMRI study showed that a coaching session
that focused on performance problems and stressful experiences led to activation of
regions of the brain that are associated with SNS arousal when participants recalled
the session several days later.
This, we propose, would have a significant deleterious effect on the coachee’s
physical health, well-being, and any desired change processes.
Proposition 4: Coaching for compliance and deficiency-based coaching will be
negatively related to (a) physical health, (b) well-being, and (c) sustained
desired change in the person being coached. These relationships will be
mediated by greater NEA than PEA arousal in the coachee.

Boyatzis et al. 167
The Effects of Coaching With Compassion
Beyond the effects on the coachee, in this section we will focus on the impact of coach-
ing with compassion at other dyadic and organizational levels. The organizational out-
comes we discuss assume that the coachee’s organization is sponsoring the coaching.
We also consider the consequences of the coach being the coachee’s direct superior.
Effects of Coaching Within the Dyad
As a result of emotional contagion within the coaching dyad, we believe the coach will
experience the same psychophysiological benefits as the coachee. Emotional contagion
is how one person’s emotions spread to others. Since Hatfield, Cacioppo, and Rapson
(1993) described this phenomenon, numerous studies have established that contagion
affects people in teams and organizations (e.g., Barsade, 2002). Emotional contagion is
believed to be one aspect of mimicry, the tendency to copy the nonverbal behavior of
those with whom one interacts (Barsade & Gibson, 2007). This capability is attributed
to specific regions of the brain, including the mirror neuron network (Cattaneo &
Rizzolatti, 2009) and the Default Mode Network (Buckner, Andrews-Hanna, &
Schacter, 2008). When observing another’s actions, these neurons activate in the same
way they would if one were performing those actions oneself. Hence, they enable learn-
ing from others by observation. Neurological studies have shown that emotional conta-
gion may occur in milliseconds, which means that one person’s emotional state can
arouse similar emotions in another person with whom they interact before either one
becomes aware of the emotion (Iacoboni, 2009; LeDoux, 2002).
In the context of coaching, the coach’s focused attention on the coachee makes the
coach particularly receptive to the coachee’s emotions. Whether the coaching process
affects the arousal of the PEA or NEA in the person being coached, it can be expected
that the coachee’s psychophysiological arousal will, in turn, activate a similar state in
the coach via emotional contagion.
Proposition 5: The emotional arousal and activation of the neuroendocrine sys-
tem of the coach will mirror the emotional arousal and activation of the neu-
roendocrine system of the person being coached.
The same arguments can be made about the emotions of the coach spreading to the
coachee. Because of this emotional feedback loop, coaching with compassion and
coaching for compliance each beget more of the same.
The coachee’s emotions are also likely to spread to others within the organization
with whom he or she interacts frequently (Barsade, 2002). If the coachee is in a leader-
ship position within the organization, the diffusion of emotions will be amplified
among his or her subordinates, since people show closer attention to the emotions of
their leaders (Barsade & Gibson, 2007).

168 The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 49(2)

Organizational Outcomes of Coaching With Compassion
We have argued that in coaching with compassion, the coachee is likely to feel valued
and cared about by the coach. Since the coaching is enabled by the organization, the
coachee is likely to make the same attributions about the organization as a whole.
Whether the coach is external to the organization, a peer (Parker et al., 2008), the
coachee’s boss, or from a different unit in the organization, the coachee will tend to
associate the organization with the coach and transfer his or her attributions about the
coach to the organization. Research on perceived organizational support, the construct
that best describes feeling valued and cared for by one’s organization, indicates that
when employees feel that their organization is committed to them, they feel more
committed to the organization (Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison, & Sowa, 1986).
We expect coachees to feel greater commitment to their organization as a result of
coaching with compassion.
Research on leader–member exchange (LMX; Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995) has shown
that having a positive relationship with one’s manager and feeling supported by him or
her leads to greater engagement, commitment, and willingness to remain in the orga-
nization (Dirks & Ferrin, 2002). Hence, we predict that if the coach is the coachee’s
boss, the positive impact on the coachee’s organizational commitment would, there-
fore, be even stronger.
The experience of compassion within the context of coaching is an experience of
being the recipient of another’s generosity and care. Fowler and Christakis (2010)
have shown that beneficiaries of benevolent or generous behavior become more
altruistic and generous toward others, often by replicating the generous behavior
they experienced. Research has also shown that positive mood leads employees to
engage in more in-role and extra-role prosocial behavior (Barsade & Gibson, 2007).
Furthermore, we expect coachees to behave more frequently toward others in the
organization in a similar way to how their coaches behaved toward them, that is,
with compassion. This would include paying more attention to others’ distress as
well as excitement or desire to achieve a goal, listening to others more attentively,
showing greater empathy and care, and being more willing to help. These types of
positive social interactions could be called compassionate interrelating. Many of the
behaviors involved are clearly examples of organizational citizenship behaviors
(OCB), discretionary, extra-role prosocial behaviors (Organ & Ryan, 1995). In addi-
tion to performing OCB toward their colleagues, we expect coachees to perform
more OCB toward the organization as a whole, because of their increased organiza-
tional commitment (Organ & Ryan, 1995). Finally, we expect the increased positive
emotions and prosocial behaviors toward others to lead to coachees building stron-
ger and more trusting, supportive, and meaningful relationships with their colleagues
(Dutton & Heaphy, 2003).
Proposition 6: Coaching with compassion will be positively related to higher
organizational commitment in the coachee.

Boyatzis et al. 169
Proposition 7: Coaching with compassion will be positively related to more
organizational citizenship behavior in the coachee.
Proposition 8: Coaching with compassion will be positively related to more high
quality relationships between the coachee and others in the organization.
Discussion and Implications
In this article, we have sought to enrich theorizing on coaching and its outcomes, and
to a lesser degree, theorizing on compassion. We argued that coaching with compas-
sion arouses the PEA, a state of positive emotional arousal and activation of the PNS,
while coaching for compliance and deficit-based coaching arouse the NEA, a state of
negative emotional arousal and activation of the SNS. We then proposed that these
ephemeral states can have enduring impacts on individual outcomes, such as physical
health, well-being, and sustained desired change. We also argued that emotional con-
tagion causes the coachee’s emotional arousal to affect a similar state in the coach
creating a positive feedback loop within the coaching dyad. Finally, we proposed that
coaching with compassion would lead to greater organizational commitment, more
frequent organizational citizenship, and more high quality relationships within the
organization for the coachee.
We also presented an expanded view of compassion that challenges and extends the
predominant conceptualization in three ways. First, we argued that the assumption that
compassion must always be a response to distress, pain, or suffering should be reconsid-
ered. Second, we distinguished responses to others needs driven by concern for the other
from those that are driven by concern for the self, which we argued is not compassion.
Third, we argued that in addition to elevating the emotional state of another, compassion
can have as its purpose helping another grow and develop. We offered that it would be
more useful to think of furthering the well-being of another as the purpose of compas-
sion instead of simply the alleviation of pain, since this encompasses both hedonic and
eudaimonic well-being. We view this set of theoretical contributions not as a contradic-
tion to, but instead an extension of, prior theorizing on compassion in organizations.
Thus far, we have only focused on the effects of coaching with compassion on the
dyad of the coach and coachee. However, several streams of research suggest that the
effects can easily “spill over” unto other members of the organization and affect the
organization as a whole as well. Recent research has shown that attitudes and behav-
iors can spread from one person to others much like emotions (Cacioppo, Fowler, &
Christakis, 2009; Fowler & Christakis, 2008, 2010), a phenomenon that some have
called social contagion. Importantly, social contagion can influence others through
direct as well as indirect ties (Fowler & Christakis, 2008, 2010). This suggests that the
coachee’s increased organizational commitment, OCB, and high-quality relationships
could spread to others in the organization who are not themselves being coached. For
example, Fowler and Christakis’ (2010) study showing that cooperative behavior cas-
cades indicates that people who are treated with compassion by the coachee are more
likely to treat others likewise.

170 The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 49(2)

Research on organizational justice has shown that individuals’ justice perceptions
influence others via social contagion and over time will converge, forming an organi-
zation-level “justice climate” (Liao & Rupp, 2005). We expect a similar dynamic to
unfold in organizations in which a certain proportion of members experience coaching
with compassion. If coaching with compassion became an established part of an orga-
nization’s routines and norms (Dutton et al., 2006), it is possible that the values of
care, empathy, and developing others, and what we previously called compassionate
interrelating would become legitimate components of its culture. Within such a cul-
ture, we would expect individuals to more frequently be in a PEA state and hence to
exhibit increased creativity, flexibility, and openness to new ideas and possibilities. At
the organizational level, this would translate into greater openness to change, enhanced
adaptability to market changes or possibilities for customers or clients.
Future research should examine whether the effects of coaching with compassion
do indeed spread to other members of the organization, and whether this could lead to
the emergence of what might be a called a culture of compassion.
A limitation of this article is that we have not addressed potential cultural and eth-
nic differences in the socially perceived acceptability of showing compassion at work.
Such behavior might be seen as weak or inappropriate behavior on the part of a man-
ager or executive in high power distance or more masculine cultures (Hofstede, 1991).
Similarly, there may be gender differences in the acceptability of male coaches show-
ing compassion to female coachees or vice versa.
Implications for Practice
We have suggested that institutionalizing coaching with compassion in an organization’s
routines could lead to transformative change in its culture and the way its members
interrelate. Such an embedding could be achieved by having leaders within the organiza-
tion be coached and trained on how to effectively coach others with compassion. These
leaders could then model the behavior as they coach their direct reports for their per-
sonal development and growth and prepare them to, in turn, cascade that coaching
behavior to others in the organization. Not only would this enhance the coaching taking
place in direct reporting relationships throughout the organization, but it would also
likely lead to increased instances of peer coaching, which has been has been shown to
be an effective means of personal and professional development (Parker et al., 2008). In
fact, peer coaching due to its relational nature and the lack of a performance account-
ability element represents an ideal context for coaching with compassion.
In addition to spreading the practice of coaching with compassion throughout the
organization via modeling and through the effects of emotional and social contagion,
organizations could also facilitate the spread of this behavior though specific organi-
zational interventions and HR practices. For example, compelling stories of effective
peer coaching and the related outcomes could be highlighted and shared via intraorga-
nizational communication platforms. Alternatively, the organization could help foster
the emergence of communities of practice around coaching, where individuals come
together for group learning and the sharing of best practices. Organizations could also

Boyatzis et al. 171
embed the competencies and behaviors associated with coaching with compassion
into the selection, development, and reward systems of the organization, signaling that
coaching others for their personal development and growth is an important and
expected practice. These are just a few of the ways in which organizations might go
about creating and sustaining a culture of coaching with compassion.
As with most organization development efforts, spread should be organic rather
than mechanical or imposed. Organic changes, in which opinion leaders and execu-
tives of units ask for a program, are likely to arouse PEA at the collective level,
opening people to even more change. When imposed organization-wide, it is almost
always experienced as compliance-oriented, arousing the NEA and closing people to
future applications.
In summary, the organizational development implication evolves from (a) more
frequent coaching with compassion, which results in (b) more people feeling cared for
and developing (as Propositions 6 to 8 claim), which results in (c) more OCB, commit-
ment, and engagement, which results in (d) better relationships, more renewal, and
openness to new ideas and possibilities. We expected that these norms would spread
organically from dyad to dyad, team to team, and organizational unit to organizational
unit. The result is a climate of caring and development and adaptation.
Implications for Research
We believe a set of qualitative studies should be conducted to further develop the
construct of compassion in organizations. Studies using the critical incident interview
method would be particularly informative. Such interviews could be conducted with
participants after they have been coached and assessing them on degree of excitement
about the future, comprehensiveness of their personal vision, and feeling cared for by
the coach. The interview protocol could be one question asked 2 to 3 times: “Tell me
about a time in your recent coaching in which you felt the coach significantly helped
you.” Study 1 could sample 25 subjects who are high on the measure of excitement
about their future and 25 low on this measure. Study 2 could sample 25 subjects who
are high on the measure of comprehensiveness of their personal vision and 25 low on
this measure. Study 3 could sample 25 subjects who are high on feeling cared for from
the coach and 25 low on this measure. Thematic analysis could be applied to interview
transcripts to determine the facets of the coach’s helpful behavior and the coachee’s
feeling about the coach.
Propositions 1, 2, and 5 could be quantitatively tested using an experimental
design. Participants could be randomly assigned to a coaching with compassion or
coaching for compliance session. Arousal of the PNS and SNS of participants and
coaches could be assessed before, during, and after the sessions using physiological
measures, such as heart rate variability and skin conductance. Emotional arousal
during the coaching session could be assessed using analysis of facial expressions
captured with video.
Testing Propositions 3 and 4 would require a longitudinal field experiment. After
random assignment to a coaching with compassion or coaching with compliance,

172 The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 49(2)

participants would be followed for several months. The study would include peri-
odic measurements of their sense of well-being and physical health as well as assess-
ments of their progress toward their personal goals and vision. Other factors that are
known to be related to these outcomes would also be measured and statistically
controlled when the data are analyzed. In terms of the ethics of random assignment,
although we believe coaching for compliance is less effective, it appears to be the
norm in most organizations. Therefore, we believe that random assignment would
not “punish” one group but give them the typical treatment found in most organiza-
tions. Another way to address this issue is to provide follow-up coaching for all
participants in the form of coaching with compassion after the data for the study
have been collected.
Propositions 6, 7, and 8 could be tested with another longitudinal field experiment.
Participants’ long-term organizational commitment could be measured by examining
voluntary turnover in both groups several months or years after the coaching inter-
vention. High quality connections, resonant relationships, job and organizational
engagement and commitment, and OCB in the workplace could be measured using
multi-source feedback. A cross-sectional design could be substituted for longitudinal
designs in any of these past two sets of studies, but key variables would have to be
controlled with stratified sampling, and the hypotheses of the studies limited to that
which can be inferred from the cross-sectional sampling.
Implications for Theorizing on Compassion
As we note above, research on emotional contagion indicates that it is possible to
“catch” another’s emotions before even noticing them. One may notice the emotion
in oneself first, then notice that the source of the emotion is the other, and finally
notice the cause of the emotion. We offer that what matters as a component of com-
passion is not noticing the other’s emotions, but noticing the other. Putting it differ-
ently, it means noticing the other as a subject, in Buber’s (1971) terms as the Thou,
rather than an object, the It. The other’s emotions facilitate that recognition of the
other as a subject. Batson et al.’s (1997) work lends support to our claim. Empathic
concern, their studies show, only arises if one recognizes the separation between self
and other. Thus, the recognition of the other as a distinct subject, who suffers and who
has dreams and aspirations, is a key component.
In addition to emotion, the compassion process must involve cognitive processes,
including the appraisals mentioned by Goetz et al. (2010), such as whether or not the
suffering is deserved or one’s own responsibility. Compassion, we contend, is rooted
in the desire to contribute to another’s well-being. We offer that even outside of the
coaching context, compassion can focus on furthering another’s hedonic or eudai-
monic well-being, or both.
Finally, the motivation to further another’s well-being must lead to action. Dutton
et al. (2006) point out that sometimes the action does not succeed in easing the other’s
suffering; though ineffective, they maintain it is still an instance of compassion. Our

Boyatzis et al. 173
discussion of coaching can contribute two insights to theorizing on the effectiveness
of compassion. We claimed that coaching is successful in stimulating sustained,
desired change when it primarily arouses the PEA by focusing the coachee’s attention
on a positive desired future, which arouses hope, and by making the coachee feel val-
ued and cared for. We offer that these same two factors distinguish effective compas-
sionate responses in general.
Conclusion
Coaching with compassion will arouse positive emotions and healthy psychophysio-
logical systems, helping a person become more open to new possibilities, grow, and
renew themselves. As a result of the effects of emotional contagion, coaching with
compassion is likely to have an impact that extends beyond the coaching relationship
to others in the organization, leading to favorable outcomes at the individual, dyad,
group, and organizational levels.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship,
and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.
Notes
1. A 2006 study commissioned by the International Coach Federation (ICF) and conducted by
PricewaterhouseCoopers estimates that at least 30,000 individuals were working as busi-
ness coaches around the world at the time, generating $1.5 billion in revenue.
2. The neuroendocrine system comprises the nervous system and the endocrine or hormonal
system of the body.
3. We must point out that studies by Fredrickson (1998, 2001), Losada and Heaphy (2004),
Gottman et al. (2002), and their colleagues cited earlier suggest that 3 to 6 times more PEA
than NEA arousal is necessary to realize these effects. The exact critical ratio remains an
empirical question for future research. An fMRI study underway will examine the differ-
ential impact of 1:1, 2:1, or 3:1 ratio of PEA-to-NEA arousal during coaching sessions on
neural activation linked to openness to learning and new possibilities.
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Author Biographies
Richard E. Boyatzis is Distinguished University Professor, professor in Departments of
Organizational Behavior, Psychology, and Cognitive Science at Case Western Reserve
University, Adjunct Professor at ESADE. Having authored more than 150 articles, his books
include The Competent Manager, and two international best-sellers: Primal Leadership with
Daniel Goleman & Annie McKee; and Resonant Leadership, with McKee. His current research
is focused on neurological studies of coaching.
Melvin L. Smith is an Associate Professor of Organizational Behavior and Faculty Director of
Executive Education at Case Western Reserve University’s Weatherhead School of Management.
He received his PhD in Organizational Behavior from the University of Pittsburgh. His research
interests include the development and use of human and social capital, social exchange relation-
ships in organizations, and workplace well-being.
‘Alim J. Beveridge is a doctoral candidate in Organizational Behavior at the Weatherhead
School of Management, Case Western Reserve University. Broadly speaking, he is interested in
altruism and benevolence, at the individual and organizational levels. His research focuses on
distinguishing different levels of commitment to corporate social responsibility (CSR) and
sustainability and understanding the diffusion of social innovations and sustainability practices.
He obtained his Master’s degree in Education and Bachelor’s degree in Computer Science, both
from Stanford University.

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Social Intelligence and
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