COM 230 Abdill Career College I Consider Myself a Systematic Decision Maker Blog Post

5/11/2019
COM230 – Lesson 1
While the dictionary provides a quick reference for
simple definitions, the study of communication and its
definition is something scholars have wrestled with for
more than 70 years.
(Hahn, Lippert, and Paynton, ch. 1)
Bruce Smith, Harold Lasswell, and Ralph D. Casey (1946) provided a good and simple answer to the question,
“What is communication study?” They state that communication study is an academic field whose primary focus
is “who says what, through what channels (media) of communication, to whom, [and] what will be the results” (p.
121). Although they gave this explanation many years ago, it still succinctly describes the focus of
Communication scholars and professionals.
The act of communicating includes: a sender, a message, a channel, and a receiver. According to the linear model
of communication, communication moves only in one direction. The Sender encodes a Message, then uses a
certain Channel (verbal/nonverbal communication) to send it to a Receiver who decodes (interprets) the
message. Noise is anything that interferes with, or changes, the original encoded message.
A sender is someone who encodes and sends a message to a
receiver through a particular channel. The sender is the initiator of
communication. For example, when you email a friend, ask a
salesclerk a question, or wave to someone you are the sender of a
message.
A receiver is the recipient of a message. The receiver must decode
messages in ways that are meaningful for him/her. For example, if
you see your friend make eye contact, smile, wave, and say “hello”
as you pass, you are receiving a message intended for you. When
this happens, you must decode the verbal and nonverbal communication in ways that are meaningful.
A message is the particular meaning or content the sender wishes the receiver to understand. The message
can be intentional or unintentional, written or spoken, verbal or nonverbal, or any combination of these.
For example, as you walk across campus you may see a friend walking toward you. When you make eye
contact, wave, smile, and say “hello,” you are offering a message that is intentional, spoken, verbal and
nonverbal.
A channel is the method a sender uses to send a message to a receiver. The most common channels
humans use is verbal and nonverbal communication.
Noise is anything that interferes with the sending or receiving of a message. Noise is external (a jack
hammer outside your apartment window or loud music in a nightclub), and internal (physical pain,
psychological stress, or nervousness about an upcoming test). External and internal noise make encoding
and decoding messages more difficult. Using our ongoing example, if you are on your way to lunch and
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listening to your ipod when your friend greets you, you may not hear your friend say “hello,” and you may
not wish to chat because you are hungry. In this case, both internal and external noise influenced the
communication exchange. Noise is in every communication context, and therefore, NO message is received
exactly as it is transmitted by a sender because noise distorts it in one way or another.
Did You Know?
Group Communication The first study that was published on
group communication in the New School era of communication
study was credited to Edwin Black in 1955. He studied the
breakdowns in group interactions by looking at communication
sequences in groups. However, it wasn’t until the 1960s and 70s
that a large number of studies in group communication began to
appear. Between 1970 and 1978 114 articles were published on
group communication and 89 more were published by 1990
(Salwen & Stacks, 1996, p. 360). Study off group communication
is still important over a decade later as more and more
organizations focus on group work for achieving their goals.
Therefore, when people communicate they engage in a process of making sense, sharing sense, and creating
meaning together through verbal and nonverbal messages. Verbal messages are those which we speak, and
nonverbal messages are those provided by cues from our body. You will learn more about verbal and nonverbal
communication in lessons to follow. For now, it is most important to grasp that communication is transactional
and the way in which we communicate impacts group success. A major criticism of the Linear Model is that it
suggests communication only occurs in one direction. It also does not show how context, or our personal
experiences, impacts communication. The Transactional Model demonstrates that communication participants
act as senders AND receivers simultaneously. The Transactional Model of Communication showcases that we are
simultaneously senders and receivers, and that noise and personal filters always influence the outcomes of every
communication exchange.
Laura K. Hahn, Lance Lippert, and Scott T. Paynton’s Survey of Communication Study: “Chapter 1: Foundations:
Defining Communication and Communication Study”
The Study of Small Group Communication
If this is the grand backdrop of communication study, what does it mean to study small group communication? To
understand the study of small group communication, let’s take a moment to explore the meaning of “group.”
Many people think that a group is simply a collection of people, but that is only part of it. If you walk out your
front door and pull together the first ten people you see, do you have a group? No! According to Wood (2003) a
group must have, “three or more people who interact over time, depend on each other, and follow shared rules
of conduct to reach a common goal” (p. 274). Gerald Wilson defines a group as, “a collection of three or more
individuals who interact about some common problem or interdependent goal and can exert mutual influence
over one another” (2002, p. 14). Interpersonal communication is often thought about in terms of dyads. That is,
we often communicate interpersonally in pairs. Organizational communication might be thought of as a group
that is larger than 12 people. While there are exceptions, for the most part, group size is often thought of in
terms of 3-12 people and the optimum small group size is 5-7 people. When the group size exceeds about 13
people, communication tends to break down with group members engaging in smaller groups. So, if the ten
people you gathered outside of your front door were all neighbors working together as part of a “neighborhood
watch” to create safety in the community, then you would indeed have a group. (Hahn, Lippert, and Paynton,
ch.11)
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In this course, we will define groups as “a collection of three or more individuals who interact about some
common problem or interdependent goal and can exert mutual influence over one another” (Wilson and Hannah,
14). Thus, the three key components of a group are size, goal orientation, and mutual influence.
Small Groups are a collection of three or more individuals who interact about
some common problem or interdependent goal and can exert mutual influence
over one another.
One of the reasons communication scholars study groups and teams is because of the overwhelming amount of
time we spend interacting in groups in professional contexts. More and more professional organizations are
turning to groups and teams as an essential way of conducting business and getting things done. Even
professions that are seemingly independent, such as being a college professor, are heavily laden with group
work.
Consider this:
You don’t think knowing how to participate in groups or teams
really matters outside of college? Think again. The Atlanta
Business Chronicle reports that many companies are using
group incentives and team-based pay to “reinforce and reward
individuals who contribute to the success of the group as a
whole.” This kind of pay structure is meant to reward group
outcome, not individual performance in a group. Next time you
don’t want to work in a group, remember you are practicing
skills that may help you earn more money.
Not only do communication scholars focus on work and social movements, we are also interested in the role that
one’s cultural identity and membership plays in our communicative choices, and how we interpret the
communication of others. This focus sheds interesting insights when we examine membership and
communication in groups and teams. One reason for this is that different cultures emphasize the role of
individuals while other cultures emphasize the importance of the group. One of particular importance to
intercultural communication is whether the culture has a collectivistic or individualistic orientation. When a
person or culture has a collective orientation, they place the needs and interests of the group above individual
desires or motivations. In contrast, the self or one’s own personal goals motivate those cultures with
individualistic orientations; each person is viewed as responsible for their own success or failure in life. Thus,
whether we view group work as favorable or unfavorable may stem from our cultural background. The U.S. is
considered an individualistic culture in that we value the work and accomplishments of the individual through
ideals such as being able to “pull yourself up by the bootstraps” and create success for yourself.
Case In Point:
The Historic Number of Women in the 113 th Congress
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This Congress has 102 female
members, including 20 female
Senators, the most ever in the history
of America. This was also a historic
election for women of color. More
than half of Asian Americans elected
to the 113th Congress are women—
including Mazie Hirono (D-HI), who is
only the second woman of color and
the only Asian American woman ever
elected to the Senate. In the House,
Grace Meng (D) will become New
York’s first Asian American member
of Congress, and Iraq War veteran
Tulsi Gabbard (D-HI) the first American Samoan elected as a
voting member of Congress. The will both join Tammy
Duckworth (D-IL), a Thai-born, double amputee war hero. Among
Latinas, Congresswoman-elect Michele Lujan Grisham became
the first Hispanic woman elected representative from New
Mexico.
In lesson 5, small group and communication will be a core feature for study.
Small Groups, Teams, and You
Meet Sally, our constant-perpetual small group student.
Like Sally,
chances are that a class assignment is not your first and only experience
with groups. We are quite certain that you have already spent, and will
continue to spend, a great deal of your time working in groups. You may
be involved with school athletics in which you are part of a specialized
group called a team. You may be part of a work or professional group.
Many of you participate in social, religious, and/or political groups. The
family in which you were raised, regardless of the configuration, is also a
group. No matter what the specific focus—sports, profession, politics, or
family—all groups share some common features.
Common features include size, goal orientation, influence and more!
Small groups and teams each practice a goal orientation or a common
purpose for which they are together. Such goals fluctuate in a myriad of
directions. In addition, in a group or team, each person exerts a certain level of influence on another. Optimum
success of a group or team is correlated with each member’s interest in the goal/purpose and each member’s
acceptance of some level of leadership. Later in the course, we will dedicate an entire lesson to leadership in
small groups.
Take a “Blog” Moment:
Consider the small groups currently in your life. In a
separate document, draft a list of 3 small groups in
your life and a brief description of how or why they
are small groups for you. You will come back to them in a few
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moments to understand the differences between small group
communication and team communication.
To post to a blog, select Blog from the options off the right side
of our COM 230 homepage. Next, select “create a post” under
Blog Tools on the left side of your blog screen. Title your post
with the lesson # and your name. Select the category for your
blog that matches the lesson. When your blog is completed,
select “publish.”
Note: It is important to answer each part of the blog prompt to
receive full credit, including comments made to other student
posts.
Considering our definition of a group , it may be difficult to see how teams
and small groups differ. It may surprise you to learn that all teams are
small groups, but not all small groups are teams. We like to define a team
as a specialized group with a strong sense of belonging and commitment
to each other that shapes an overall collective identity. Members of a
team each have their own part, or role, to fulfill in order to achieve the
team’s greater goals, which tends to make teams more highly structured
than groups. In teams, one member’s strengths can be other member’s
weaknesses, so it is beneficial when balancing individual input. While all
members of an athletic team share some athletic ability and special appreciation for a sport, for example,
members of a football team have highly specialized skills as indicated in the various positions on the team—
quarterback, receiver, and running back. In addition to athletic teams,
work and professional teams also share these qualities. Competent team
members spend time together during and outside of “team” time, engage
in talk that builds trust as well as centers on the task. In addition, they
also clarify terms, listen, observe, reflect, and have fun together. Now that
you know how to define groups and teams, let’s look at characteristics of
groups and teams, as well as the different types of groups and teams.
Characteristics of Groups
Interdependence
Members of a group are dependent on the others for the group
to maintain its existence and achieve its goals. Groups cannot be
defined as a number of people simply talking to each other or
meeting together. In essence, interdependence is the
recognition by those in a group of their need for the others in
the group (Cragon & Wright, 1999; Harris & Sherblom, 2008;
Lewin, 1951). Imagine playing a basketball game as an individual
against the five members of another team. Even if you’re
considered the best in the world, it’s highly unlikely you could
win a game against five other people. You must rely on four
other teammates to make it a successful game.
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Interaction
It probably seems obvious to you that there must be interaction
for groups to exist. However, what kind of interaction must
exist? Since we all communicate every day, there must be
something that distinguishes the interaction in groups from
other forms of communication. Cragon, Wright and Kasch state
that the primary defining characteristic of group interaction is
that it is purposeful. They go on to break down purposeful
interaction into four types: problem solving, role playing, team
building, and trust building (7). Without purposeful interaction a
true group does not exist. Roles, norms, and relationships
between members are created through interaction. If you’re put
into a group for a class assignment, for example, your first
interaction probably centers around exchanging contact
information, settings times to meet, and starting to focus on the
task at hand. It’s purposeful interaction in order to achieve a
goal.
Synergy
One advantage of working in groups and teams is that they allow
us to accomplish things we wouldn’t be able to accomplish on
our own. According to Systems Theory, which we will discuss in
lesson 2, synergy is the notion that the whole is greater than the
sum of its parts. This is the very idea of synergy (Sherblom). In
an orchestra or band, each person is there to perform in order
to help the larger unit make music in a way that cannot be
accomplished without each member working together.
Common Goals
People who comprise groups are brought together for a reason
or a purpose. While most members of a group have individual
goals, a group is largely defined by the common goals of the
group. Think of the example at the beginning of this lesson. Your
common goal in a class group is to learn, complete an
assignment, and earn a grade. While there may be differences
regarding individual goals in the group, such as what final grade
is acceptable, or how to achieve the common goals, the group is
largely defined by the common goals it shares.
Shared Norms
Groups develop shared norms or standards of behavior to help
them achieve their goals because they have come together for a
common purpose. Even with a goal in place, random interaction
does not define a group. Group interaction is generally guided
by norms a group has established for acceptable behavior.
Norms are essentially expectations of the group members,
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established by the group. Norms can be conscious and formal,
or unconscious and informal. One example of norms that we
often witness as professors is the expectation of our students’
groups that all members show up at group meeting times. When
members of a group violate this norm, we notice how frustrated
the other group members get. We’ll spend more time later in the
course looking at group norms.
Cohesiveness
One way that members understand of the idea of
communicating in groups and teams is when they experience a
sense of cohesiveness with other members of the group. When
we feel like we are part of something larger, it creates a sense of
cohesion or wholeness, a purpose that is bigger than our own
individual desires and goals. It is the sense of connection and
participation that characterizes the interaction in a group as
different from the defined interaction among loosely connected
individuals. If you’ve ever participated in a group that achieved
its goal successfully, you are probably able to reflect back on
your feelings of connection with the other members of that
group.
Types of Groups Not all groups are the same or brought together for the same reasons. Bilhart and Galanes
(1998) categorize groups “on the basis of the reason they were formed, and the human needs they serve” (p. 9).
Let’s take a look!
Primary Groups.Primary groups are ones we form to help us realize
our human needs like inclusion and affection. They are not
generally formed to accomplish a task, but rather, to help us meet
our fundamental needs as relational beings. These needs include
acceptance, love, and affection. Primary groups are generally longer
term than other groups and include family, roommates, and other
relationships that meet as groups on a regular basis (Bilhart &
Galanes).
Secondary Groups. Secondary groups form to accomplish work,
perform a task, solve problems, and make decisions (Bilhart & Galanes; Harris & Sherblom; Cragan &
Wright). Larson and LaFasto (1989) state that secondary groups have “a specific performance objective or
recognizable goal to be attained; and coordination of activity among the members of the team is required
for attainment of the team goal or objective” (p. 19). Bilhart and Galanes divide secondary groups into four
different types.
Four Types of Secondary Groups
Activity Groups form for the purpose of participating in activities such as Drama Club or Chess Club.
Personal Growth Groups “come together to develop personal insights, overcome personal problems, and
grow as individuals from the feedback and support of others” (Bilhart & Galanes, p. 11). An example that is
probably familiar to you is Alcoholics Anonymous. There are many personal growth groups available for
helping us develop as people through group interaction with others.
Learning Groups “are concerned primarily with discovering and developing new ideas and ways of thinking”
(Harris & Sherblom, p. 12). If you have ever been assigned to a group in a college class, most likely it was a
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learning group whose purpose was to interact in ways that that help those in the group learn new things
about the course content.
Problem-Solving Groups are created for the express purpose of solving a specific problem. The very nature
of organizing people into this type of group is to get them to collectively figure out effective solutions to
the problem they have before them. Committees are an excellent example of people who are brought
together to solve problems.
After learning about the characteristics of groups, various types of groups, and characteristics of effective team
members, it’s probably easy for you to recognize just how much of your daily interaction occurs within the
contexts of groups and teams. The reality is, we spend a great deal of time in groups, and understanding the
types of groups you’re in, as well as their purpose, goes a long way toward helping you function as a member. Do
you remember our definition of a group?
A group is a collection of three or more individuals who interact about some common problem or
interdependent goal and can exert mutual influence over one another .
Take a “Blog” Moment:
Recalling this definition puts you well on your way
towards the foundation of understanding small group
communication. Now, review the small groups you
wrote about in your blog draft. Given this new information about
small groups and teams, does your list include groups, teams, or
both? Are they primary groups or secondary groups? Revise your
draft to add information to clarify the meaning of your small
groups to state if they are a team, group or both, as well as what
type of group they are, i.e., primary or secondary. When you are
finished, save your draft and continue with the lesson. You will
add more to your blog in the next section. Understanding the
differences between the circles of people in your life is
important because it provides a context for you to take your
communication competence to a new level!
Explain how small groups function in a virtual environment.
When was the last time you used Facebook, sent a text message, or got
on Skype? Facebook is an online social networking Website that connects
people with friends, family, and acquaintances all over the world. Skype is
a free voice-over IP service, video chat, and instant messaging client that
allows people to make Internet voice and video calls. Have you ever
organized an event or participated in group communication using a
virtual environment? If you haven’t, most likely you will at some point in
your life for personal or professional reasons.
From teleconferences to email, video, and virtual meeting sites, you can
communicate with one person or many people in different places and spaces within a variety of electronic
mediums. Such mediums may be referred to as a virtual environment or computer-mediated communication
(CMC). In fact, such dynamic and immediate connections have caused scholars to question how much connection
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is too much connection. To consider this phenomenon, take a moment to review this Ted Talk, “Sherry Turkle:
Connected, But Alone?” about today’s connectedness (or lack thereof).
Despite the continual struggle for human connection, small groups are using virtual environments to work
together to greater and greater degrees. As you enter the workforce, you’ll likely find yourself participating in
virtual groups with people who have been brought together from a variety of geographical locations. While
communication technologies can be beneficial for bringing people together and facilitating groups, they also
have drawbacks. When we lack face-to-face encounters, and rely on asynchronous forms of communication,
there is greater potential for information to be lost and messages to be ambiguous. The face-to-face nature of
traditional group meetings provides immediate processing and feedback through the interaction of group
members. When groups communicate through email, threads, discussion forums, text messaging, etc., they lose
the ability to provide immediate feedback to other members. Also, groups using communication technologies
take a great deal more time to achieve its goals, due to the asynchronous nature of these channels. In order for
small groups to achieve success, in CMC, there must be a level of interaction and reciprocity between individuals
through the use of computers.
Key Characteristics of Computer­Mediated Communication (CMC)
Continuously available
Highly interactive and complex
Easily recorded
Multi-person
Synchronous
Asynchronous
In the expansive boom of computer-mediated communication, scholars have worked hard to develop theory that
explains and predicts small group communication in the virtual environment. One area of theory is Cues Filtered
Out Theory. The majority of the research these scholars have done suggests that CMC systems are not neutral,
and that CMC can cause many changes to the way people communicate with one another. It has also been found
that CMC creates the opportunity for communication that can be more intense than traditional face-to-face (FtF)
communication, an idea discussed in Joseph Walther’s hyperpersonal model of CMC (Walther, 1996).
CMC changes the relationship of interaction, which may cause a reduction of in-person engagement.
Communication in this format is generally continuously available to users 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Text
messaging, email and social media do not have the limitations of one-way communications like radio, newspaper
or television mediums. Strangers may meet through CMC before ever meeting in person, providing a new
interpretation of the concept of the first impression.
Theoretical Frameworks of Computer­Mediated Communication
Cues­Filtered­Out Theories
Social Presence Theory (Short, Williams, & Christie,1976) – “The fewer the
number of cue systems a system supported, the less warmth and involvement
users experienced with one another.”
Social Context Cues Theory (Siegel, Dubrovsky, Kiesler, & Mcguire, 1986;
Sproull & Kiesler, 1986) – “CMC occluded the cues to individuality and
normative behavior that face­to­face interaction transacts nonverbally.”
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Cues­Filtered­Out Theories
Media Richness Model (Daft & Lengel, 1984) – “The theory argues that
there is a match between the equivocality of a message situation and the
richness of the medium with which to address it: To be most efficient, greater
equivocality requires more media richness, and lesser equivocality requires
leaner media.”
In short, to mimic face-to-face communication in a CMC, small groups function in a virtual environment by
uniquely navigating aspects of traditional face-to-face communication. These include:
Time: In virtual communication, time affects small group communication. Small groups use time to
communicate asynchronously (at different times with the message being seen at varying points like a
message board) or synchronously (at the same time in the same virtual space in which communication is
instant and there is not time delay like in a video conference such as Skype). In fact, the more synchronous
the virtual communication, the more it feels like “face-to-face” communication, regardless of the actual
physical and geographical distance.
Verbal and Nonverbal Messages: In face-to-face communication, nonverbal communication is
communication that does not rely on written or spoken words. In virtual communication, small groups use
nonverbal communication cues through word choice, graphics, emoticons ( 🙂 (smiley face), :p (tongue
sticking out), 😀 (big smiley face), :/ (angry or frustrated)) and acronyms like LOL which means laugh out
loud.
Distance: Virtual environments allow small groups to transcend physical distance. Since text messages,
emails, and live video feeds are not bound by miles, small group members may maintain greater physical
distances and maintain a healthy and productive small group.
Take a “Blog” Moment:
Finally, conclude your blog draft by discussing the
computer-mediated communication (CMC) between
your groups. Describe how each group uses a virtual
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environment to communicate and which of the traditional faceto-face communication aspects (discussed above) are most
affected by CMC. When you are finished with your draft,
proofread and submit it to the course blog for this lesson.
Learn how to post to the COM 230 Blog here.
Explain communication competence in small groups.
Some people are naturally good at communicating, while for others effective communication comes less easily.
Regardless of where you may fall on this spectrum, all people can learn to become more competent in
communicating, especially in small groups.
requires much more from communicators engaging in professional (and personal) discourse than was necessary
before, resulting from progress in communication technology, the need for speed and specificity, and the
unprecedented workplace diversity. Advances in technology offer new communication tools that require high
precision in information transfer. This is to say that being understood in professional and personal areas
depends on being able to use language correctly as well as matching the content of the message with the
standards of the receiver. For instance, organizing a get-together with work colleagues will look and sound
differently than organizing a get-together with old roommates. In sum, a person who is competent in small
groups is able to relate appropriately with group members.
Imagine lifting a heavy ball together with team mates in a small group. You realize that the other group members
could not lift the ball without your help. You feel energized and try really hard because you know that your group
needs you and that your contribution really makes a difference. You have the ability to address the need of the
group to lift the ball in a way they can understand while managing the discussion and relationships in the group.
This example illustrates the essence of communication competence. Small group members must be motivated
(lifting or dropping the ball), must have knowledge (understand how to lift the ball), and must have skill (the
ability) to lift the ball.
Motivation Knowledge Skill
Now imagine the same situation from a different perspective: You are in your group and you realize that the
other group members can see your contribution. If you are the first to give up holding the ball, everybody will
know that it was you who failed; if you push through until somebody else gives up, everybody will notice that,
too. Therefore, you are motivated to hold the ball, demonstrate your knowledge of holding the ball, and your skill
to not only hold the ball, but continue to do so, if necessary. For the purpose of our class we will use the
following definitions for motivation, knowledge, and skill.
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Instruction
Explain the usefulness of theory in small group communication.
Understanding small group communication theory creates a firm foundation for study and assists in building your awareness
of communication choices. While theories in many disciplines can be hard for some to understand, in a field like
Communication, our theories are important to understand because they directly impact our daily lives. In this respect, they
serve several functions in guiding our communication.
The two primary functions of communication theory are to explain and predict.
In small group communication, the explanatory function showcases how small groups can perform more efficiently, and the
predictive function allows for members to forecast outcomes.
Consider This: Communication Theory & You
Sean De’Bey with Sylfronia King
In elementary school you might have believed in cooties. Or, you might
have believed that if a boy was mean to a girl, he must have liked her,
and vice versa. In Jr. High and High School, finding a date to the
homecoming or prom could be one of the most intimidating things to do.
Now, in college, the dating world has evolved. The ambiguity between
what defines a date and a friendly night out can be frustrating for some
and exciting for others. Regardless, when situations like these appear, it
is easy to seek advice from friends about the situation, ask a parent, or
search the web for answers. Each of these resources will likely provide
theories about functioning in relationships that you can choose to use or
dismiss when clarifying the relationship’s dynamic situation. What are
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some theories you’ve heard about how to communicate in crossgendered relationships?
The Functions of Theory:
Organize & Understand
The first function theories serve is that they help us organize and understand our communication experiences. We use
theories to organize a broad range of experiences into smaller categories by paying attention to “common features” of
communication situations (Infante, Rancer & Womack). How many times have you surfed the internet and found articles
or quizzes on relationships and what they mean for different genders? Deborah Tannen, author of You Just Don’t
Understand: Women and Men in Conversations , argues that men and women talk in significantly different ways and for
significantly different reasons. Of course, these differences cannot be applied to all men and women. But, theories on
gender communication help us organize and understand the talk of the different genders in a more simplified context so
we can understand general patterns of communication behavior. This helps us make appropriate decisions in gendered
communication situations.
Choose What to Study
A second function of theories is that they help us choose what communicative behaviors to study. Theories guide where
we choose to look, what we look at, and how we look at communicative phenomenon. In lesson 1, we defined
communication study. Theories focus our attention on certain aspects of that definition. If you find that Tannen’s theories
regarding how men and women talk differ from your own perceptions, or that they’re outdated, you might choose to
more closely study the verbal or non-verbal communication of men and women to see if you can rectify the difference in
theoretical perspectives. You likely already do this on a personal level with your self-concept , which is your theory about
yourself that influences your choices. Googling something as simple as “how to act in a relationship,” will lead you to
hundreds of websites and articles breaking down the dynamics of relationships depending on one’s gender. Likewise, if
you want to persuade someone to do something for you, you probably have a theory about what strategies you can use
to get them to do what you want. Your theory guides how you approach your persuasive attempts, and what you look for
to see if you were successful or not.
Broaden Understanding
A third function of theories is that they help us broaden our understanding of human communication. Scholars who
study communication share theories with one another online, through books, journal articles, and at conferences. The
sharing of theories generates dialogue, which allows us to further refine the theories developed in this field. Tannen’s
book allowed the public to re-think the personal theories they had about the communication of men and women. With
the opportunity to find countless theories through new books, magazines, the Internet, and TV shows, the general public
has the opportunity to find theories that will influence how they understand and communicate in the world. But, are
these theories valid and useful? It’s likely that you discuss your personal theories of communication with others on a
regular basis to get their feedback.
Predict & Control
A fourth function of theories is that they help us predict and control our communication. When we communicate, we try
to predict how our interactions will develop so we can maintain a certain level of control. Imagine being at a party and
you want to talk to someone that you find attractive. You will use some sort of theory about how to talk to others to
approach this situation to make it more successful. As in all situations, the better your theoretical perspectives, the better
chances for success when communicating. While theories do not allow us to predict and control communication with
100% certainty, they do help us function in daily interactions at a more predictable and controlled level. Notice that when
you are successful, or unsuccessful, in your interactions, you use this information to assess and refine your own
theoretical perspectives.
Challenge Realities
A fifth function of theories is that they help us challenge current social and cultural realities by providing new ways of
thinking and living. People sometimes make the mistake of assuming that the ways we communicate are innate rather
than learned. This is not true. In order to challenge the communicative norms we learn, people use critical theories to ask
questions about the status quo of human communication, particularly focusing on how humans use communication to
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bring advantage and privilege to particular people or groups. For example, Tannen argues that when men listen to
women express their troubles, they listen with the purpose of wanting to provide a fix or give advice. Tannen argues that
many times, women are not looking for advice or a fix, but rather empathy or sympathy from their male conversational
partners. With this understanding, it’s possible to begin teaching men new strategies for listening in cross-gendered
conversations, which serve to build stronger communication ties. Critical theories challenge our traditional theoretical
understandings, providing alternative communicative behaviors for social change.
1st Function
Theories help us organize and understand our communication experiences.
2nd Function
Theories can guide us in choosing which behaviors to study.
3rd Function
Theories help us broaden our personal knowledge of human
communication.
4th Function
Theories are tools to help predict and control our communication.
5th Function
Theories are tools that help us challenge current social and cultural realities
by providing new ways of thinking and living.
Think back to the list of small groups in your life that you made in Lesson 1. Was one of the groups on your list members of
your family? Sometimes overlooked, families function as small groups with high levels of complexity. For instance, families
change as people marry or separate, new members are born, and other members pass away. Families may engage in varying
levels of conflict and utilize a variety of roles and norms. They also may navigate different environments such as physical
locations (like a home) or virtual situations (such as text messaging). In this video, Family Ties…Strengthening the Family Unit ,
meet Raymond and Veronica’s family.
Take a “Blog” Moment:
From this brief introduction and considering what you learned
in Lesson 1 about small group communication, what
theoretical statement could you develop about this family?
Create a draft for this lesson’s blog. Use your observation of this family
to draw a conclusion that could explain or predict a behavior in their
family. Write your conclusion in a concise statement using 1-2 sentences.
Next, write a paragraph describing your observations that lead to your
theoretical statement. The blog should follow this format . Save your draft.
Later in the lesson, you will add more discussion.
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Developing Good Theories
Take a moment to compare Newton’s theory of gravity to communication theories. Simply put, Newton theorized that there is a
force that draws objects to the earth. We base our physical behaviors on this theory, regardless of how well we understand its
complexities. For example, if you hold a pen above a desk and let go, you know that it will fall and hit the desk every time you
drop it. In contrast, communication theories change and develop over time (Infante, Rancer & Womack; Kaplan; Kuhn). For
example, you might theorize that smiling at someone should produce a smile back. You speculate that this should happen most
of the time, but it probably would not surprise you if it does not happen every time. Contrast this to gravity. If you dropped a
pen, and it floated, you would likely be very surprised, if not a little bit worried about the state of the world.
If communication theories are not 100% consistent, like theories in the physical sciences, why are they useful? This question
has initiated a great deal of debate among those who study communication. While there is no definitive answer to this
question, there are a number of criteria we use to evaluate the value of communication theories. According to Littlejohn and
Foss, scope, parsimony, heuristic value, openness, appropriateness, and validity are starting places for evaluating whether or
not a theory is good.
Scope refers to how broad or narrow a theory is (Infante, Rancer & Womack; Shaw & Costanzo). Theories that cover
various domains are considered good theories, but if a theory is too broad it may not account for specific instances that
are important for understanding how we communicate. If it is too narrow, we may not be able to understand
communication in general terms. Narrow theories work well if the range of events they cover can be applied to a large
number of situations. It is easier to understand some theories when we are given examples or can see it being played
out.
Parsimony refers to the idea that, all things being equal, the simplest solution takes precedence over a more complicated
one . Thus, a theory is valuable when it is able to explain, in basic terms, complex communicative situations. If the theory
cannot be explained in simple terms it is not demonstrating parsimony.
Heuristic Value means that a theory prompts other theorists to engage in further study and theorizing about a given
problem . The Greeks used the term, heurisko, meaning “I find” to refer to an idea that stimulates additional thinking and
discovery. This is an important criterion that facilitates intellectual growth, development, and problem solving. For most
Communication theories, it would be quite easy to track their development as more people weighed in on the discussion.
Openness is the quality that a theory allows for, and recognizes, multiple options and perspectives . In essence, a good
theory acknowledges that it is “tentative, contextual, and qualified” (Littlejohn & Foss, 30) and is open to refinement. The
openness of a theory should allow a person to examine its multiple options and perspectives in order to personally
determine if the theory holds up or not.
Appropriateness refers to the fit between the underlying theoretical assumptions and the research question . Theories
must be consistent with the assumptions, goals, and data of the research in question. Let’s say you want to understand
the relationship between playing violent video games and actual violence. One of your assumptions about human nature
might be that people are active, rather than passive, agents meaning we don’t just copy what we see in the media. Given
this, examining this issue from a theoretical perspective that suggests people emulate whatever they see in the media
would not be appropriate for explaining phenomenon.
Validity refers to the worth and practical nature of a theory . The question should be asked, “is a theory representative of
reality?” There are three qualities of validity — value, fit, and generalizability. Is a theory valuable for the culture at large?
Does it fit with the relationship between the explanations offered by the theory and the actual data? Finally, is it
generalizable to a population beyond the sample size? In our example of the relationship between violent video games
and actual violence, let’s say we studied 100 boys and 100 girls, ages 12-15, from a small rural area in California. Could
we then generalize or apply our theories to everyone who plays video games?
The above functions of theory and criteria serve as a starting point for generating and evaluating theories. As we move into the
next section on different theoretical perspectives, you will see how some of these criteria work. First, it is important to
remember that the purpose of communication in small groups is to make sense. Communication does not follow a linear
model, rather communication is transactive . Second, whether you are making sense of a situation on your own (intrapersonal),
in a dyad (interpersonal) or in a small group, the words used become powerful tools to reduce uncertainty about the situation
as people move toward their goal(s). Third, the number of people involved in the communication increases the complexity of
the sense-making. Thus, it becomes necessary for all involved to continue to reduce the uncertainty.
Scope – How broad or narrow a theory is.
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Parsimony – All things being equal, the simplest solution takes precedence over more complicated
one.
Heuristic Value – A theory prompts other theorists to engage in further study and theorizing
about a given problem.
Openness – The quality that a theory allows for, and recognizes, multiple options and perspectives.
Appropriateness – The fit between the underlying theoretical assumptions and the research
question.
Validity – The worth and practical nature of a theory.
Just another theory:
Uncertainty Reduction Theory (URT) deals with the ability to predict
others’ behaviors in a conversation to reduce uncertainty. The
uncertainty arises when there are many possible alternatives to explain a
given situation or encounter. The ability to narrow down, or predict,
where the conversation is headed therefore provides for more ease
going forward.
There are two kinds of uncertainty:
Behavioral Uncertainty is the degree of uncertainty to how people
will act.
Example: Not knowing how long to hold the door behind you
based on how far away the next person is.
Cognitive Uncertainty is the degree of uncertainty related to
cognitions and understanding that person as an individual.
Example: Not knowing how much to disclose about yourself if
you are meeting a new person.
In these situations, there is a level of uncertainty about the proper way
to act that might leave the feeling of uneasiness. There are seven
assumptions of URT. These are:
1. People experience uncertainty in interpersonal setting.
2. Uncertainty is stressful.
3. When strangers meet, their primary goal is to reduce
uncertainty/increase predictability.
4. Interpersonal communication occurs through stages.
5. Interpersonal communication is the primary means of uncertainty
reduction.
6. Quantity and nature of info that people share changes through
time.
7. It is possible to predict behavior in a “law like fashion” (West and
Turner, 168). The last assumption is the most controversial in that
it presents a covering law theory, which believes that it can
formulate a law that explains all behavior.
To make sense of small groups, like families, small group communication theory also offers process theories and method
theories . Process theories are used to help explain communication events while method theories can tell you what to do in
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specific communication situations such as resolving conflict. Consider your theoretical statement about the family in the video.
For example, you may have theorized that the family regularly goes to church to maintain cohesion. In this statement, going to
church is considered a ritual. In more abstract terms, you could further theorize that rituals provide pathways to
communication. Such a statement could be used to not only explain the ritual, but to prescribe a behavior to aid small group
communication.
Describe five theories utilized in small group communication.
In the study of human communication, many theories seek to explain and predict human
interaction. In this course, you will focus on five theories that give you a sampling of different
theoretical ways to approach small group communication.
Systems Theory
Systems theory asks you to view small group communication through the lens of a system. The
Systems Theory Paradigm represents a dramatic theoretical shift from empirical laws and human
rules approaches for understanding communication. Systems thinking began in the social and
physical sciences in the 19th century with George Hegel (Kaufmann), and was more fully developed
by biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy in the 20th century. When applied to communication, the
Systems Theory Paradigm seeks to understand the interconnectedness of human communication
rather than looking at just one part. The basic idea behind Systems Theory is, “The whole is greater
than the sum of its parts.”
Consider an automobile. Within the car are a number of parts such as the engine, transmission, fuel
tank, etc. Each part contributes to making the car run. When one part of the car breaks, the whole
car can be affected in various ways. A car is an open system that receives input, processes the
input, and creates an output. Small groups are also open systems. Systems theory works well
because it allows the scholar (that would be you) to account for the components of small group
communication, as well as the different environments that influence the group.
One characteristic of Systems Theory is that systems are teleological (Infante, Rancer & Womack),
meaning that they seek to achieve a particular goal or outcome. The goal of combining the
ingredients of a cake is to produce a cake and facilitate an occasion. The goal of a working
automobile engine is transportation. The goal of having a family is love and support. The goal of a
business is to produce products and profit. Communication researchers examine the interactions of
those that make up systems to understand the systems’ goals, as well as how they attempt to
achieve goals.
Another characteristic of systems is they are always trying to achieve homeostasis — the state of equilibrium or balance. Using
the idea of a family, most families attempt to fit in with their neighbors, co-workers, friends, city, country, culture, etc. Systems
are always in a process of trying to achieve a level of homeostasis with their environment. When changes occur in either the
environment or a system, system participants will adapt in order to maintain balance. For example, if you moved away from
your immediate family to attend college your move had an impact on the homeostasis of your family. As a result, everyone in
your family had to adjust in some way to the change brought about by your move in order to create a new sense of
homeostasis. Even though you are still part of the family system, the system changed as a result of your move, and must
respond in order to adapt to the change.
Properties of Systems Theory:
Theological.
They seek to
achieve a
Homeostasis.
State of
equilibrium;
balance.
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particular goal
or outcome.
Core Tenets of Systems Theory:
Openness: A small group is open to its environment. Small groups are always affected by interactions with circumstances.
Many parts inside and outside of the group are subject to change such as group members and group or organizational
goals.
Interdependence: Interdependence is the state of being dependent upon one another; all parts are interrelated and
connected. Some areas of interconnectedness include membership, the goals set before the group, the climate of the
organization, the economy, or even the weather. Therefore, small groups must be studied considering each of these
areas; no individual area can be singled-out because it is dependent on other areas.
Synergy: As the group takes on its own personality through its development, synergy is evident when the whole is greater
than the sum of its parts. The group that is formed becomes more than each individual in the group.
Entropy: Entropy is the deterioration of the group as the group becomes rundown in a trend toward being disordered or
chaotic.
Equifinality: Equifinality is the property of allowing or having the same effect or result from different events. This is to say
that a group may have one goal, however, it could take many different paths to achieve the goal.
Variables:
Input: Input variables are the items that go into the group like the group members, their supplies, the organizational
climate and the physical environment.
Output: Output variables include what the group delivers, i.e., their outcomes.
Process: Process variables are the ways the group functions to reach its goals, including their procedures and norms.
One area of communication study that utilizes systems theory extensively is the study of Organizational Communication.
Scholars in this specialization are interested in the interaction of people to see how they create what we know as organizations
(Bavelas & Segal; Katz & Kahn). For example, what makes Wal-Mart different than Target? It’s not simply their products or
prices. Instead, these two mega-retail stores have a certain “personality” and way of functioning that is different from the
other. Those who look at communication from a systems perspective believe that it is the interaction of the participants that
makes organizations what they are. The power of looking at communication from a systems perspective is that every
communicative act impacts the system as a whole. When there is a change in one part of a system, it changes the entire system
to some degree.
Social Exchange Theory
Social exchange theory draws on the principles of economics to explain human behavior. In application to small group
communication, relationships are described in terms of rewards, costs, profits, and losses. Social exchange theory posits that
all human relationships are formed using a subjective cost-benefit analysis and the comparison of alternatives. For example,
when a person perceives the costs of relationship as outweighing the perceived benefits, then the theory predicts that the
person will choose to leave the relationship. The notion of equity is also important to Social Exchange Theory. Equity is the
value of the relationship after the costs of the relationship is considered. Overall, Social Exchange theorists can predict the
success of a small group based on these variables.
Rewards − Costs = Profits
versus
Rewards − Costs = Loss
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In a small group, the group remains worthwhile if the rewards outweigh the costs to provide a profit.
Symbolic Convergence Theory
Symbolic convergence theory (SCT) is a communication theory developed by Ernest
Bormann where people share common fantasies and these collections of individuals are
transformed into a cohesive group. When you join a small group, you often feel a sense
of belonging with the group that is formed through the group’s identity. The identity is
formed by developing the group’s consciousness through shared communication that
results in fantasy. Fantasy is a technical term for the way the group makes sense of
communication through creatively sharing their interpretation of an event. Such
communication influences aspects of the group including roles and norms.
Symbolic Convergence Theory has three parts:
1. Discovery: The group notes the recurrence of communicative forms and patterns in the group to indicate the presence of
a group consciousness or the collective awareness of the group.
2. Dynamics: Groups describe the tendencies within the communication systems of the group to explain why group
consciousness arises, continues, declines, or disappears that impact the group consciousness in terms of meanings,
motives, and communication within the group.
3. Explanation: The development of hypotheses to explain the “why” people share fantasies.
As the group develops, members share the same awareness relating to emotions, motives, and meanings. Group fantasy often
begins in the telling of a story in which group members share stories in succession. Stories develop into themes for the
conversation that lead the group to develop a sense of shared identity. Therefore, Symbolic convergence creates a symbolic
climate and culture that allow people to achieve empathic communion as well as “a meeting of the minds.” It is symbolic
because it deals with the human tendency to interpret signs, signals, current experience, and human action and to invest these
with meanings.
The power of symbolic convergence theory stems from the human tendency to try to understand events in terms of people
with certain personality traits and motivations making decisions, taking action, and causing things to happen. We can
understand a person making plans to achieve goals and succeeding or failing to do so, because we often interpret our own
behavior in that way in our personal fantasies. We often daydream about achieving our desires and think up plans to achieve
our goals. We tacitly assume that our choices and our plans are motivated, under our control, and that they can make a
difference. Interpreting events in terms of human action allows us to assign responsibility, to praise or blame, to arouse and
propitiate guilt, to hate and to love.
When we share a fantasy, we attribute events to human action and thus make sense out
of what prior to that time may have been a confusing state of affairs, and we do so in
common with others who share the fantasy with us. Thus, we come to symbolic
convergence on the matter and we will envision that part of our world in similar ways.
We have created some symbolic ground and we can then talk with one another about
that shared interpretation with code words or brief allusions along the lines of the
inside-cue phenomenon.
One person might share about a time they started the race too fast. As they continue to
talk, others share about running events, how they train for races, and what works for
them. Before long, Sally’s group understands itself to be a group of runners that enjoys running and racing for the fun of it.
Winning is nice, but it is not the goal of the group. They just run to finish the race. Conversely, another running club might be
just the opposite. Sally’s running club works well and continues because each person feels a sense of belonging and buys into
the identity of the group.
Structuration Theory
Structuration theory helps you to understand how people behave in small groups by noting rules and systems. Developed by
sociologist Anthony Giddens, Structuration theory is based on creating and sustaining organization from interactions. In doing
so, rules not only guide group members, but also allow them to maintain or change a group. For example, when workers get
together for a meeting, it is standard for the boss, manager, or someone who has to most power to guide the conversation
without any opposition. If the entire group agrees on something, like striking against the boss, the organizational structure may
be altered. Communication is key for these processes to occur.
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There are three assumptions to Structuration Theory:
1. Groups and organizations are produced and reproduced through the use of rules
and resources.
2. Communication rules serve as both the medium for, and an outcome of,
interactions.
3. Power structures are present in organizations and guide the decision-making
process.
Rules
Though the rules we create may restrict our behavior, they also enable us to interact with each other. If our society didn’t have
rules, nobody would have a guideline as to how to behave. Imagine on your first day at a job that you’re simply thrown in
without being told what to do. You need some sort of rules to follow to be able to be efficient and do your job. There are two
types of rules: explicit and implicit. Explicit rules are clearly stated (similar to an instruction manual that comes with a new
piece of furniture) while implicit rules are assumed or learned through experience (raising your hand when you want to speak
in class).
Giddens claims that the key to understanding communication that occurs in organizations is to examine the structure of the
foundation. A structure varies from a system: a system is the organization itself and the behaviors that a group engages in to
complete its goals, while a structure refers to the actual rules and resources members use to create and sustain the system.
With that said, the actual concept of structuration can be defined as a “the process by which systems are produced and
reproduced through members’ use of rules and resources” (Poole, Seibold & McPhee, 1996). Structuration allows people to
understand their patterns of the way they behave, which is the foundation of the social system. Rules, whether explicit or
implicit, are typically learned from the organization and are passed on, unless the group decides to change them. The way in
which a group changes a rule is adjusted from one organization to the next. To have a successful group change, a good sense
of communication must be present.
Power
In each communication, a sense of power is established- everyone has power, but some people (like bosses) can have more
power than others. With that said, nobody can have absolute power. Resources can be defined as the attributes or material
goods that can be used to exert power in an organization, and they are important because they establish power between
individuals. Different types of power can be used within an organization, and this power is what establishes communication
and enables understanding.
Authoritative Resources:
Within a group, the ability for members to influence one another is extremely important when considering goal
accomplishment; it is the basis of interpersonal communication in Structuration Theory. For this reason, many businesses will
analyze their authoritative resources, or interpersonal assistance used to help groups accomplish their goals. By determining
which workers employ which kinds of authoritative resources, as well as which resources are most effective for certain types of
goal-accomplishment, a business can better structure itself to be more efficient. For example, a teacher in a classroom can
analyze her students’ reactions to her use of different authoritative resources to decide which kinds are best to accomplish
their goals. Also, if she decided to split the class into small groups, each with a task to accomplish, she could make the groups
by deciding which students use which resources and by creating a balance within each group.
Authoritative resources can be broken down into five types of powers:
Reward Power: perception that another person can provide positive outcomes.
Coercive Power: perception that another person can enact punishment.
Referent Power: perception that another person can achieve compliance because of
established personal relationships.
Legitimate Power: perception that another person can exert influence because of a
certain title or position.
Expert Power: perception that another person can exert influence because of special
knowledge or expertise.
We will discuss these power bases in more detail later in the course.
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Functional Theory
Functional theories are focused on identifying and explaining behaviors that allow a group to achieve its goal. The functional
perspective on group decision making is a communication theory that deals with the decisions made by groups. It was
originated by Randy Hirokawa and Dennis Gouran. It focuses on how a group can increase the likelihood of making a good
decision by advancing three ideas that are key for determining a group’s success.
In general, the group members try to satisfy the task requirements, use communication to overcome constraints in the
problem solving, and take the time needed to review how they arrived at their decision. Specific to this process is analyzing the
problem to create an understanding of the nature of the problem, the seriousness and urgency of the problem, the feasible
origin of the problem and the consequences associated with not solving the problem. Next, they must establish criteria by
which to judge proposed solutions. If they fail to do this, their decisions are more likely to be driven by politics than reason. As
the group considers solutions, Hirokawa and Gouran stress the importance of considering a number of alternative solutions
from which the group members could choose. Hirokawa and Gouran argue that, “If no one calls attention to the need for
generating as many alternatives as is realistically possible, then relatively few may be introduced, and the corresponding
possibility of finding the acceptable answer will be low”(250-251).
After a group has identified alternative solutions, the participants must take care to test the relative merits of each option
against the criteria they believe are important. Some group tasks have a positive bias. They believe that spotting the favorable
characteristics of alternative choices is more important than identifying negative qualities. Other group tasks have a negative
bias. They believe that the unattractive characteristics of choice options carry more weight than the positive attributes.
**It is important to note that Hirokaw and Gouran believe that all four functions serve an important purpose and that no
individual function is better than another. They must all be used to reach a high-quality decision.
The Role of Communication in Functional Theory:
Hirokawa and Gouran outline three types of communication in decision-making groups
1. Proactive – interaction that calls attention to one of the four decision-making functions.
2. Disruptive – interaction that detracts from the group’s ability to achieve the four task functions.
3. Counteractive – interaction that refocuses the group.
Since most interaction is disruptive, the functional perspective relies heavily on counteractive communication to refocus the
group.
Take a “Blog” Moment:
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Now that you have
learned about five
significant theories in
small group
communication, revisit your draft
for this lesson’s blog. Add a
paragraph aligning your theoretical
statement with one of these
theories (Systems Theory, Social
Exchange Theory, Symbolic
Convergence Theory, Structuration
Theory, or Functional Theory). In
your discussion explain why the
theory you chose is the best place
to start for the investigation of
your theoretical statement. When
you have completed your draft,
take time to proofread for proper
grammar, spelling and
punctuation. You are now ready to
submit it to the course blog.
Learn how to post to blogs here
Define potential variables in small group communication.
This course highlights seven key variables for study in small group communication. These variables function interdependently
with each affecting the others. Review the graphic below to see potential variables in small group communication.
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Instruction
Explain the impact of roles and norms on small group communication.
Before you can fully engage the idea of playing a role in small group communication, you must consider who you are. As you
interact with others in small groups, your self-concept becomes integral to understand your own behaviors. Self-concept is the
image that we have of ourselves. How exactly does this self-image form and change over time? This image develops in several
ways, but is particularly influenced by our interactions with important people in our lives.
Self-concept is generally thought of as our individual perceptions of our behavior, abilities, and unique characteristics. It is
essentially a mental picture of who you are as a person, or a theory about yourself. For example, beliefs such as “I am a good
friend” or “I am a kind person” are part of an overall self-concept.
Self-concept tends to be more malleable when people are younger and still going through the process of self-discovery and
identity formation. As people age, self-perceptions become much more detailed and organized as people form a better idea of
who they are and what is important to them. Humanist psychologist Carl Rogers believed that there
are three different parts of self-concept: Self-image , Self-esteem , and Ideal self . In conjunction,
Psychologist Dr. Bruce A. Bracken suggested in 1992 that there are six specific domains related to
self-concept:
Social: the ability to interact with others
Competence: the ability to meet basic needs
Affect: the awareness of emotional states
Physical: feelings about looks, health, physical condition, and overall appearance
Academic: success or failure in school
Family: how well one functions within the family unit
We organize group roles into four categories — task, social-emotional, procedural, and individual. If
you understand how group roles form and how various roles function, you will be better able to
help a group achieve its purpose. Task roles are those that help or hinder a group’s ability to accomplish its goals . Socialemotional roles are those that focus on building and maintaining relationships among individuals in a group (the focus is on
how people feel about being in the group). Procedural roles are concerned with how the group accomplishes its task . People
occupying these roles are interested in following directions, proper procedure, and going through appropriate channels when
making decisions or initiating policy. The final category, individual roles, includes any role “that detracts from group goals and
emphasizes personal goals” ( Jensen & Chilberg, 1991). When people come to a group to promote their individual agenda above
the group’s agenda, they do not communicate in ways that are beneficial to the group. Let’s look at each of these categories in
more detail.
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Task Roles. While there are many task roles a person can play in a group, we want to emphasize five common ones. The Task
Leader is the person who keeps the group focused on the primary goal or task by setting agendas, controlling the participation
and communication of the group’s members, and evaluating ideas and contributions of participants . The person you identify as
the leader of the group or the person put in charge of the group probably performs the task leader role. Information Gatherers
are those people who seek and/or provide the factual information necessary for evaluating ideas, problem-solving and reaching
conclusions . This is the person who serves as the liaison with your professors about what they expect from a group project.
Opinion Gatherers are those who seek out and/or provide subjective responses about ideas and suggestions . They most often
consider the values, beliefs, and attitudes of members. If there is a quiet member of your group, the opinion gatherer may ask,
“What do you think?” to get that person’s feedback. The Devil’s Advocate is the person who argues a contrary or opposing point
of view . This may be done positively to ensure that all perspectives are considered, or negatively as the unwillingness of a
single person to participate in the group’s ideas. The Energizer is the person who functions as the group’s cheerleader,
providing energy, motivation, and positive encouragement .
Social-Emotional Roles. Group members play a variety of roles to build and maintain
relationships in groups. The Social-Emotional Leader is the person who is concerned
with maintaining and balancing the social and emotional needs of the group members
and tends to play many, if not all, of the roles in this category . The Encourager practices
good listening skills to create a safe environment for others to share ideas and offer
suggestions . Followers are group members who do what they are told, going along with
decisions and assignments from the group . The Tension Releaser is the person who uses
humor or can skillfully change the subject in an attempt to minimize tension and avoid
conflict . Clearly, this is the role Sally prefers! The Compromiser is the one who mediates
disagreements or conflicts among members by encouraging others to give in on small
issues for the sake of meeting the goals of the group .
Procedural Roles. Groups cannot function properly without having a system of rules or
norms in place. Members are responsible for maintaining the norms of a group and play
many roles to accomplish this. The Facilitator acts like a traffic director by managing the flow of information to keep the group
on task . Gatekeepers are those group members that attempt to maintain proper communicative balance . These people also
serve as the points of contact between times of official group meetings. The Recorder is the person responsible for tracking
group ideas, decisions, and progress . Often, a written record is necessary, thus, this person has the responsibility for keeping,
maintaining, and sharing group notes. If you’re the person who pulls out a pen and paper in order to track what the group talks
about, you’re the recorder.
Individual Roles. Because groups are made of individuals, group members often play various roles to achieve individual goals.
The Aggressor engages in forceful or dominating communication to put others down or initiate conflict with other members .
This communication style can cause some members to remain silent or passive. The Blocker is the person who fusses or
complains about small procedural matters, often blocking the group’s progress by not letting them get to the task . They worry
about small details that, overall, are not important to achieving the group’s desired outcome. The Self-Confessor uses the group
as a setting to discuss personal or emotional matters not relevant to the group or its task . This is the person who views the
group as one that is there to perform group therapy. The Withdrawer shows little interest in the group or the problem at hand
and does not contribute in a meaningful way, or at all . This is the person who does essentially no work. The Joker or Clown uses
inappropriate humor or remarks that can steer the group from its mission . (University of Minnesota Libraries, 2016)
Case In Point
The popular sitcom Workaholics (2011-present) follows three college
dropouts who work at a telemarketing company and are notoriously
terrible workers. Always working as a group in their shared cubicle, the
three young men are all prime examples of group members who play
Individual Roles: Anders as the Aggressor, Blake as the Self-Confessor,
Adam as the Blocker, and all three of them act as the joker or clown at
one point or another. As you might guess, this group is very unproductive
and ineffective.
In a group, people often are responsible for taking on more than one role or engaging in more than one type of behavior. Some
roles can be assigned, such as a leadership role. Others may depend upon a person’s personality.
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Most of the time you will know what is expected from you by the way the rest of the group treats you. For example, even if you
don’t feel as if you would be adequate as the group’s leader, if everyone turns and makes eye contact with you when a final
decision needs to be made, you are clearly the task leader in their minds. Behaviors may be learned, so even though a role may
make you uncomfortable or may feel confusing at first, you can learn to adapt and be what your group needs you to be. In this
class, taking an active part in the live events in leson 3 and lesson 9 provide an opportunity for you to try some of these roles as
well as gain clarification in which roles you feel more or less comfortable.
Roles and norms impact small group communication by reducing uncertainty about how the group will communicate and
function. In the communication field, scholars Berger and Calabrese (1975) note a primary objective in initial interactions is to
reduce the uncertainty about others backgrounds, attitudes, and beliefs (cognitive uncertainty), as well as how to act and react
in social situations (behavioral uncertainty) (Berger, 1979; Boucher & Jacobson, 2012). This line of study utilizes uncertainty
reduction theory. If uncertainty reduction theory is interesting to you, check out “Causal Uncertainty During Initial Interactions,”
an article investigating how people’s doubts about their ability to understand social events affects their perception of social
situations. You may also want to read the portion of Lesson 2 which describes Uncertainty Reduction Theory.
Group Norms
Norms are important. As we highlighted in the “norming” stage of group formation, they are the defining characteristics of
groups. Every group in which we participate has a set of rules like we discussed in the “norming” stage. Each group’s norms are
different, and we must learn them to be effective participants. Often, they form based on group members’ experiences in
previous groups. Some groups formalize their norms and rules, while others are less formal and more fluid. Norms are the
recognized rules of behavior for group members, they influence the ways we communicate with other members, and ultimately,
the outcome of group participation.
Brilhart and Galanes (1998) divide norms into two categories: general norms and role
specific norms. General norms “direct the behavior of the group as a whole”. Meeting
times, how meetings run, and the division of tasks are all examples of general norms
that groups form and maintain. These norms establish the generally accepted rules of
behavior for all group members.
The second category of norms is role-specific norms. Role-specific norms “concern
individual members with particular roles, such as the designated task leader”. How
quickly and rigidly people conform to the rules and standards of a group depends on
the individual characteristics of the group members, clarity of the norm and the
certainty of punishment for breaking the norms, and the number of people who have already conformed to the norm.
Not only are there norms that apply to all members of a group, there are norms that influence the behaviors of each role. If a
group’s members are self-motivated and do not need someone imposing structure, they will set a norm that the group leader
should act as a laissez-faire or democratic leader rather than an authoritarian leader (Refer to Lesson 10 for information on
Leadership). Violation of this norm would most likely result in conflict if leaders try to impose their will. A violation like this will
send a group back to the “storming” stage to renegotiate the acceptable norms of the group. When norms are violated, group
members most often will work to correct the violation to get the group back on task and functioning properly. As groups
progress through the various stages, and as members engage in the various roles, the group is in a continual process of
decision making. Though many norms develop in a group without anyone explicitly identifying what is or what is not acceptable
behavior, sometimes the establishment of ground rules can help a group or team effectively accomplish a task. To develop
these basic principles, the leader of a group may begin by inviting the members to participate in the development of their
group-specific ground rules, rather imposing and enforcing norms on their group members. For example, here is a sample list
of community rules for an online class. Do you think these would work for our class live events?
Sample Community Ground Rules
Treat contributions made by other members of the class with
respect.
Reach out and help when you see the need. And ask for help
when you need it.
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Have patience and a sense of humor with technology. There will
be hiccups, expect them.
Keep an open mind. If you’re feeling reluctant, that’s ok. Take it
one step at a time and look at this as an opportunity to learn
something new.
Contribute regularly to collaborative activities to ensure other
members of the community have ample opportunity to
read/listen, reflect, and respond to your ideas.
Respect the diverse opinions and viewpoints of each member of
our community. Differences allow us to learn and grow together.
Understand that communications shared through text have a
higher likelihood of being misinterpreted than the spoken word.
Therefore, when you type a thought or a comment, read it
carefully before you submit it. If you question the way it is
worded, read it out loud to yourself. If you still question the way
it’s phrased, rewrite it.
Contribute regularly to group dialogue, including blog posts and
replies. The contributions of each individual play a role in the
collective strength and diversity of our community.
Members of our community are restricted to enrolled members
of our class, in an effort to maintain a safe, trustworthy
discussion environment. [If students will be engaging in
interactions in the public web, note those activities here (and in
other parts of your course where those activities are explained)
to ensure they know who their audience is before they
contribute. Learning to share appropriately in the public web is
an important component of developing a digital citizenship and it’s
your job to ensure students are clear about who has access to
their work.]
All image and video content shared within this community will
reflect acceptable academic standards. You are expected to use
discretion and, if asked, you will be expected to demonstrate
how your content supports the theme of our community: “[enter
a description of the community’s theme here].”
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Any community member has the ability to create a new
discussion forum in our course. However, the individual who
creates the forum immediately takes on the responsibility of
moderating it. This means you have committed to regularly
responding to new comments and greeting new members of the
forum.
If, at any time, you feel that any of these ground rules have
been violated by a member of our community, you are
encouraged to bring your concern directly and immediately
to [enter your name], our community leader. Clearly identify
which ground rule has been violated and include specific evidence
of the violation
Roles and norms provide a way for members to know their place in the group and how to behave so the group can fulfill its
purpose. In this course, the small group interactions are all virtual. It is important to note that developing power, status, and
trust differs in this environment as opposed to face-to-face communication. For example, while face-to-face communication
relies on social and emotional bonds to develop trust, virtual small groups must rely on task-oriented responses to develop
trust.
Do you count on one person to usually get the group going with the task, or is there one person that always brings humor into
the conversations? When these people are absent, do you notice a difference in the dynamics of the group? Roles and norms
tend to happen whether you formally or informally assign them. As students of small group communication, understanding
specific roles and the formation of norms provides you with the tools you need to successfully achieve group goals.
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start
Drag each card to its most appropriate category.
Now Showing: Card 0 of 18 cards
Task Roles:
Roles that help or hinder a
group’s ability to
accomplish its goals.
Social­emotional roles:
Roles that focus on
building and maintaining
relationships among
individuals in a group (the
focus is on how people
feel about being in the
group).
Procedural roles:
Roles concerned with how
the group accomplishes
its task.
Individual roles:
Any role that detracts
from group goals and
emphasizes personal
goals.
Take a “Blog” Moment:
Consider the small groups currently in your life. In a separate
document, draft a blog to answer:
Have you ever been in a group in which a group member did not do
perform the assigned task? What happened? (If not, please contact
your instructor).
How did the group handle this situation?
What was the response of the person who did not complete the
task?
In hindsight, would you have handled the matter differently? If so,
how would you have handled the matter?
Save your draft. You will come back to it in a few moments to expand
after you learn about power in small groups.
Define the effects of status and power in small groups.
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All small groups have status and power relationships among group members. These variab
what types of messages will be communicated, and how decisions will be influenced. At
first glance, the idea of social status and power can have negative connotations with
images of a dictatorial ruler or an antagonistic group member. Upon further
investigation, however, you will notice that status and power allow one to have insight
into understanding talking patterns in small group communication and whose influence
is most likely to be effective in the group.
Social Status
Among the many organizational and individual factors that can influence the effectiveness of communication, social status is
one of the most challenging to address. One of the most powerful forces drawing people into groups is the attraction of high
status. Social status refers to the relative rank or standing that an individual has in the eyes of others. Position in the
organization’s hierarchy, background, education, reputation, and power all contribute to those perceptions of prestige.
There are two elements of social status—those attributes we are born with and those we achieve. Ascribed status is determined
at birth and includes characteristics such as sex, age, race, ethnic group, and family background. Achieved status is what an
individual acquires because of the exercise of knowledge, ability, talent, skill, and/or perseverance. Employment and occupation
are primary factors in social status, and one’s role in a small group is especially relevant within the boundaries of that group or
team.
Implications of Social Status on Communication
People often have difficulty navigating status differences when trying to inform or
persuade others. To many, social status is an indicator of credibility and legitimacy, and
it effects how seriously others take what one communicates. Key elements that are
involved in an audience’s evaluation include title, reputation, and the extent to which
people can identify with the communicator’s motives and objectives. Status differences
can create a bias against those with the perceived lower status. For example, a junior or
lower-level employee asked to make a presentation to a group of more senior upperlevel managers may have difficulty keeping their attention at first even if his information and presentation skills are solid.
Outsider status can also be a challenge in communication. This is commonly experienced by salespeople, vendors, and even
potential employees.
Given the complexity of group interaction, it’s short-sighted to try to understand group communication without looking at
notions of power (think back to Critical Theories and Research Methods). Power influences how we interpret the messages of
others and determines the extent to which we feel we have the right to speak up and voice our concerns and opinions to
others . Take a moment to reflect on the different ways you think about power. What images come to mind for you when you
think of power? Are there different kinds of power? Are some people inherently more powerful than others? Do you consider
yourself to be a powerful person?
There is no simple answer to these questions and there is no single definition of power. The word “power” literally means “to
be able” and has many implications. One way to think about power is in terms of the relationships between people. In the
workplace, your boss can exert power to make you work late or fire you. If you don’t work there, that person cannot make you
do anything. That ability to exert power only exists when there is the proper relationship between people. Additionally, the
ability to exert that power depends on the proper place and time. A judge cannot walk down the street sentencing random
people to prison sentences. A judge can only sentence someone while presiding over a case where the person is a defendant.
Power Bases
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The types of power we draw on in relationships have long been a topic of small group study. Researchers John R. P. French and
Bertram Raven identified five types of power someone may draw on: legitimate, expert, referent, reward, and coercive (French
& Raven, 1959). Like power itself, these types of power are relational and dependent on the situation. What works in one
situation might not work in another. A struggle for power among group members can result in poor group decisions and less
group cohesion. Therefore, it is important to understand the bases of power to avoid such pitfalls. Let us explore each type in
more depth. Click on each button below to understand each power base.
LEGITIMATE POWER
EXPERT POWER
REFERENCE POWER
REWARD AND COERCIVE POWER
Group members may have high status or low status and utilize a base of power . Watch this short clip from the beginning of
Ironman. What is the status of Ironman (played by Robert Downey Jr.)? What power base does Ironman appear to utilize? How
do you know?
Take a “Blog” Moment:
Now that you have read about status and power, review your
blog draft. Revise your draft to include another paragraph
about the status and/or power at play in the small group
communication. When you are finished with your draft, proofread and
submit it to the course blog for this lesson.
Learn how to post to the COM 230 Blog here .
Virtual Communication, Small Groups and Trust
If you have ever tried to work with a small group through a virtual medium, you know that virtual communication poses
nuances that are absent in face-to-face communication. The rise of the Internet, the creation of a global fiber-optic network,
and the rapid development of long distance communication technologies has made it very easy for people all over the world to
work together. It created a global platform that has allowed more people to plug and play, collaborate and compete, share
knowledge and share work, than anything we have ever seen in the history of the world (Friedman, 2005). The new
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Lesson Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
Compare and contrast defensive and supportive climates
Explain the benefits of cohesiveness in a small group
Define the impact of communication networks in group climate
Instruction
Compare and contrast defensive and supportive climates.
Do you look forward to engaging with some small groups in your life more than others? Perhaps the group is task- related, or
maybe something about the group climate makes you more likely to join in rather than bolt in the other direction.
Communication climate is the “overall feeling or emotional mood between people” (Wood 245). If you dread going to visit your
family during the holidays because of tension between you and your sister, or you look forward to dinner with a particular set
of friends because they make you laugh, you are responding to the communication climate—the overall mood that is created
because of the people involved and the type of communication they bring to the interaction.
Climate has a direct effect on relationships and members’ satisfaction and morale. Researcher Jack Gibb proposes that the
interpersonal communication in organizational (small group) relationships, especially between superiors and subordinates,
contributes to the overall climate of organizations/small group(s). Gibb identifies a continuum of climate characteristics ranging
from supportive to defensive behaviors that lead to member satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Small group climate is influenced by
a variety of variables; understanding the difference between defensive and supportive climates will help you to build small
groups that reduce stress and increase overall group satisfaction. To build a supportive climate, the emphasis is not only on
what is communicated, but how it is communicated. Let’s look at two different types of communication climates: Confirming
and Disconfirming messages.
Confirming and Disconfirming Messages
Positive and negative climates can be understood along three dimensions—recognition, acknowledgement, and endorsement.
We experience Confirming Climates when we receive messages that demonstrate our value and worth from those with whom
we have a relationship . Conversely, we experience Disconfirming Climates when we receive messages that suggest we are
devalued and unimportant . Obviously, most of us like to be in confirming climates because they foster emotional safety as well
as personal and relational growth. However, it is likely that your relationships fall somewhere between the two extremes. Let’s
look at three types of messages that create confirming and disconfirming climates.
Recognition Messages: Recognition messages either confirm or deny another person’s existence . For example, if a friend
enters your home and you smile, hug him, and say, “I’m so glad to see you” you are confirming his existence. If you say
“good morning” to a colleague and she ignores you by walking out of the room without saying anything, she is creating a
disconfirming climate by not recognizing you as a unique individual.
Acknowledgement Messages: Acknowledgement messages go beyond recognizing another’s existence by confirming what
they say or how they feel . Nodding our head while listening, or laughing appropriately at a funny story, are nonverbal
acknowledgement messages. When a friend tells you she had a really bad day at work and you respond with, “Yeah, that
does sound hard, do you want to go somewhere quiet and talk?”, you are acknowledging and responding to her feelings.
In contrast, if you were to respond to your friend’s frustrations with a comment like, “That’s nothing. Listen to what
happened to me today,” you would be ignoring her experience and presenting yours as more important.
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Endorsement Messages: Endorsement messages go one step further by recognizing a person’s feelings as valid . Suppose
a friend comes to you upset after a fight with his girlfriend. If you respond with, “Yeah, I can see why you would be upset”
you are endorsing his right to feel upset. However, if you said, “Get over it. At least you have a girlfriend” you would be
sending messages that deny his right to feel frustrated in that moment. While it is difficult to see people we care about in
emotional pain, people are responsible for their own emotions. When we let people own their emotions and do not tell
them how to feel, we are creating supportive climates that provide a safe environment for them to work though their
problems.
Defensive and Supportive Climates
Defensive climates are “…