beth week 4

Since week 1 you have been writing, writing, and writing even more. You get your papers graded then you write again correcting the errors pointed out. Since being in this program you all were advised, instructed, and reminded to use Google Scholar to research articles, journals, books, etc., for your assignments. Why is writing as well as reading all the details so important in Leadership and Management? How does this endless task of writing help to improve your skills in research as well as proposal writing, writing memos, disciplinary, and writing reports in accordance with Chapter 12 of your course book? Explain.

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
LO12.1 Explain how planning and conducting business research for reports impacts your
credibility.
LO12.2 Create research objectives that are specific and achievable.
LO12.3 Explain principles of effective design for survey questions and choices.
LO12.4 Develop charts and tables to concisely display data and accentuate key messages.
LO12.5 Evaluate the usefulness of data sources for business research.
LO12.6 Conduct secondary research to address a business problem.
LO12.7 Evaluate research data, charts, and tables for fairness and effectiveness.
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WHY DOES THIS MATTER?
In your career, you’ll be responsible for reading and preparing an amazing variety of
business reports. Common types include business plans, project reports, status or progress
reports, financial plans, marketing plans, strategic plans, and technical reports. Reports can
range from a single page to thousands of pages. One characteristic is common to all types:
the purpose is to provide sound information, analysis, and advice to decision makers.
Compared to most daily business correspondence, reports are considered more reliable,
authoritative, thorough, and final. As decision-making tools, they are typically commissioned
by and written for middle-level or upper-level managers or external stakeholders (i.e., loan
officers, stockholders). Because of their role in decision making, most reports take much
more time to create than daily business correspondence. Furthermore, many reports are
written collaboratively since they contain complex information that requires the talents and
resources of many professionals.
Many reports rely on business research. A person who can conduct business research will
have many opportunities for success and advancement. Research is the process of searching
for knowledge. In business, you may want to know how consumers think and feel,
understand employees’ attitudes about a new policy, forecast sales based on past
performance and carefully selected assumptions, use internal data to identify consumer
behavioral patterns, or examine data to address a variety of business problems.
Conducting and reporting research can enhance your credibility in a variety of ways. You
demonstrate an often-rare competency in the workplace when you can zero in on core
business problems and collect and analyze data that relates to these problems. You show
caring by involving key decision makers in the process and conducting research that meets
their needs. Also, your character is significantly enhanced when decision makers recognize
that they can count on you to deliver results in an objective and unbiased fashion.
In this chapter, we consider several approaches to planning and conducting research for
reports. Overall, the purpose is to gather and analyze data that will drive excellent decision
making and high organizational performance. First, we focus on setting research objectives,
a process that ensures you identify the most relevant data for your business goals. Then, we
examine the processes of primary and secondary research to ensure that you will gather
reliable data. We also discuss how to effectively present numerical and other information in
charts, graphs, and tables so that your complex data is easy to understand and supports your
key messages. Read the following case, which serves as the basis for examples provided in
Chapters 12 and 13.
LO12.1
Explain how planning and conducting business research for reports impacts your
credibility.
Hear Pete Cardon explain why this matters.
bit.ly/cardon12
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Analyzing Your Audience for Business Reports
The planning stage for many types of business reports—especially those based on research—often
takes months, even years. Like other communications, you can apply the AIM planning process to
develop your message based on good ideas that meet the needs of decision makers.
The first step in developing research-based business reports is identifying what decision makers
want to accomplish. In many cases, they will commission the reports and have clear goals in mind. In
other cases, they do not have clear goals. In all cases, you should spend time with your target audience
of decision makers to carefully consider their primary business goals, research objectives, and
expectations.1
During the research and report writing process, consider updating decision makers and involving
them in the process. This increases the likelihood that you will develop a report that is useful to them.
Gathering Information through Primary Research
With a clear understanding of what decision makers want from reports, you are ready to begin
research. For important business decisions, gathering data can take weeks, months, and even years.
Since many reports are intended to aid high-stakes decision making, getting the right information,
analyzing it correctly, and making related recommendations needs to be done carefully and
completely.
Business research can be broadly categorized as primary and secondary. Primary research refers
to the analysis of data that you, people from your organization, or others under your direction (i.e.,
consultants) have collected. Secondary research refers to the analysis of data collected by others
with no direction from you or members of your organization.
Primary research is generally most reliable and useful for your business reports because you can
focus it to meet your specific research objectives and get feedback directly related to your
organization and its needs. However, conducting primary research is often time-consuming,
intrusive, and expensive. In some cases, primary research might suffer from a bias toward preexisting
opinions and beliefs. For example, a marketing director who is convinced that a new product will be
successful when it hits the market may misinterpret consumer research to fit his/her preexisting
opinions. Common types of primary research include analysis of internal data, survey research, focus
groups, interviews, and case studies.
In this chapter, we focus on one of the most common types of primary research: surveys. Survey
research is increasingly common because of the ease with which online surveys can be administered
(see Technology Tips). Generally, survey research involves administering written questionnaires.
Most survey questions are closed questions, which restrict respondents to certain answers (rating
scales, multiple choice, etc.). Some survey questions are open-ended questions, allowing
respondents to answer in any way they choose. Closed questions can be more easily quantified and
analyzed. However, open-ended questions allow you to understand an issue in more depth.
Develop Research Objectives
LO12.2
Create research objectives that are specific and achievable.
Once you have identified what your audience of decision makers needs, you will carefully define your
research problems. Defining research problems involves stating your research objectives in specific,
targeted, and achievable statements. Notice in Table 12.1 how Jeff develops research objectives for
two of his research projects.
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TABLE 12.1
Creating Research Objectives
Create Surveys
LO12.3
Explain principles of effective design for survey questions and choices.
With online survey technology readily available and easy to use, you will likely have many
opportunities to use it in the workplace. Surveys are particularly useful because you can quickly get
the responses of dozens if not hundreds of colleagues, current or potential customers, or members
of other groups of interest. Online surveys are a nice tool because you can automatically dump all the
data you collect into a spreadsheet. Of course, online surveys are not always convenient or possible,
so you will sometimes use traditional paper-and-pencil
Visit http://connect.mheducation.com for an exercise on this topic.
Ideally, you will have opportunities to learn about effective survey design, data collection, and
analysis in some of your university courses. If you don’t have this opportunity, many excellent books
can help you develop your survey research skills. However, to develop your survey skills, you will
need more than how-to knowledge. You also need to practice several times; there’s no substitute for
conducting several surveys and using the data to solve business problems in the workplace.
Principles for Survey Questions
• Simple to answer
• Non-leading
• Exhaustive and unambiguous
• Single idea
Generally, surveys should be short. Rarely can you get accurate data from surveys that take longer
than five minutes to complete. Most consumer research questionnaires contain fewer than five or six
questions. If the survey takes too long, respondents may become impatient and provide less-thanaccurate responses or skip questions. The exception is when you pay respondents to take a survey.
The obvious drawback is the high cost.
Another key to getting reliable data is designing the survey questions effectively. Survey questions
should be (1) simple to answer, (2) non-leading, (3) exhaustive and unambiguous, and (4) limited to
a single idea.
Survey Questions Should Be Simple to Answer As you design most surveys, envision respondents
who are eager to complete the items quickly and who will spend minimal time thinking about any
given item. Survey questions should contain short questions and short response options. Thus,
respondents should be able to read the entire question in 10 to 20 seconds and select a response that
matches their true opinions and feelings within just a few seconds. In Table 12.2, you will notice how
Jeff is developing survey questions for his research about guest satisfaction.
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TABLE 12.2
Creating Simple Survey Questions
Survey Questions Should Be Non-Leading Be sure the questions in your survey are non-leading. A
leading question is one that suggests an answer. Often, the leading question is designed to gain a
preferred response from the survey designer’s perspective. Sometimes, leading questions are
phrased to imply how a respondent should answer. For example, the following leading question
would likely lead many respondents to provide insincere answers: As a citizen in the country with the
most per capita carbon emissions in the world, how interested are you in learning about green meeting
options? Leading questions often do not allow respondents to provide their genuine thoughts or
impressions. So, leading questions in surveys can produce unreliable and unusable information (see
Table 12.3).
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TABLE 12.3
Creating Non-Leading Survey Questions
Survey Choices Should Be Exhaustive and Unambiguous Survey choices should be complete. Being
exhaustive means that all possibilities are available, and being unambiguous means that only one
choice is appropriate (see Table 12.4).
TABLE 12.4
Creating Exhaustive and Unambiguous Survey Choices
Survey Questions Should Contain One Idea Survey questions that contain more than one idea are
difficult for respondents to answer (see Table 12.5). Furthermore, they are impossible to correctly
analyze. Notice Jeff’s completed survey in Figure 12.1.
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FIGURE 12.1
Example of Simple, Easy-to-Complete Online Survey
TABLE 12.5
Creating Survey Questions with a Single Idea
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Analyze Your Data
Once you’ve conducted your surveys, your next step is to analyze the data. This job may feel
exhilarating. Or it may feel overwhelming and even daunting. Even small sets of data from relatively
few survey questions can be analyzed and configured in nearly limitless ways. As you develop your
primary research skills, consider the following advice:
1. Learn as much as you can about forecasting and other forms of statistical and quantitative analysis.
Unless you apply good principles of analysis, you can easily get flawed results. Furthermore, unless
you are careful you can, without any intention of doing so, allow your preconceived ideas and biases
to affect how you interpret the data.
2. Learn as much as you can about spreadsheet, database, and statistical software. You likely will have a
course in spreadsheet software (i.e., Excel). Make the most of this training and continue
experimenting with the software to feel comfortable analyzing data. Also, develop a basic
understanding of databases. All companies store tremendous amounts of information in databases. If
you understand basic database design, you will know what types of information you can extract to
answer your research questions. Finally, statistical software (i.e., SPSS, SAS, SYSTAT ) can help you
conduct analyses far more rapidly and efficiently than can spreadsheet software.
3. Rely on others in your analysis. You will likely work with colleagues who have quantitative analysis
skills in certain disciplines and for certain types of business problems, and you can turn to them for
technical help. Also, you can turn to others for analytical help, because when you analyze data in a
group, you are less likely to inadvertently misinterpret the data.
4. Stay focused on your business problem and look for the big picture. Often, company databases or
survey data contain so much information that you can easily be overwhelmed by the many ways to
use it. As you discipline yourself to focus on your key research problems, you are less likely to get
bogged down looking at tangential issues.
Communicate with Charts and Tables
Nearly all business activities and goals are measured and quantified: profit and loss, operating
expenses, marketing expenditures, employee turnover, performance evaluations, market share,
budgets, customer behavior, quality, and so on. Simply put, business executives and managers
communicate with numbers. Some management experts even describe the ability to communicate
numbers as a core managerial competency. Thus, in this section, we’ll focus on using charts and tables
to communicate numerical information.
After conducting survey research or other forms of business research, you typically have many
statistics and figures that you could include in reports to decision makers. However, presenting this
information effectively is challenging. In fact, most managers communicate numerical information
poorly. Also, while business managers tend to like numbers, few listeners and readers can absorb a
lot of them at one sitting. As one communication expert mentioned to managers, “The chances are
good that you love numbers a lot more than most of your audience members do. . . . Overloading your
audience members with data is a sure way to guarantee they’ll forget almost everything you say.”2
Although most managers communicate with numbers with the intention of persuading and inspiring,
they most often end up confusing or boring their audience.
The most fundamental mistake that executives and managers make Page 377when communicating
with numbers is failing to focus on the main message, which tends to be non-numerical. Phrases such
as, “I’m going to spend a few minutes going through the numbers,” or “Let me give you some
background by running through the numbers” can cause your audience to tune out.3 As you will learn
in more detail in the next sections, your presentation’s takeaway message should be your first and
primary consideration when communicating with charts and tables. As you read through the next
few pages, notice how Jeff designs charts and tables for his research about the Prestigio Hotel. In
particular, pay attention to how these charts and tables are useful for Andrea, who is director of
marketing and the primary decision maker.
Designing Effective Charts
LO12.4
Develop charts and tables to concisely display data and accentuate key messages.
Visit http://connect.mheducation.com for an exercise on this topic.
Charts caneffectively convey complex numerical information in a simple, appealing format.
A well-designed chart can express a strong message and leave a lasting visual impression
on viewers and readers. Since many viewers and readers immediately gravitate to them,
charts have the potential to draw readers into a document or presentation almost
instantaneously.
Overall, the message of the chart is central. As Dona Wong, graphics director of The Wall Street
Journal from 2001 to 2010, explained, “It is the content that makes graphics interesting. When a chart
is presented properly, information just flows to the viewer in the clearest and most efficient way.
There are no extra layers of colors, no enhancements to distract us from the clarity of the
information.”4 As with other business messages, planning is the key component of developing charts.
Effective business communicators carefully select the few data relationships that most support
their business messages. Top graphic designer Nigel Holmes, who is credited with coining the term
explanation graphics, notes that charts must do more than describe or inform. They should explain
important business ideas or relationships that support the key messages of a communication.
Furthermore, charts should not require much mental effort for the reader. As Holmes points out,
“Charts that don’t explain themselves are worse than no charts.”5
Throughout this chapter you’ll find charts and tables that illustrate the strategic use of data to
address the concerns of Andrea from the chapter case. While dozens of chart options are available,
this section focuses on the three types used primarily within the workplace: line charts, pie charts,
and bar charts. Several other chart and figure types are illustrated with less detail. Mastering the
design principles of these most common and relevant charts will enable you to create other, less
common types if you choose to do so.
Generally, line charts are useful for depicting events and trends over time. For example, stock
prices over time would make the most sense when presented in the form of a line chart. Pie charts
are useful for illustrating the pieces within a whole. Market share would be best illustrated with a pie
chart. Bar charts are useful to compare amounts or quantities. The bar chart, with its many forms, is
the most versatile of these charts since it can be used to compare many types of data.
Create Effective Charts
As you create charts, focus on the following criteria: (1) title descriptiveness, (2) focal points, (3)
information sufficiency, (4) ease of processing, and, most important, (5) takeaway message. In the
following pages, you will find a discussion of each of these criteria. Also, you will find less effective
and more effective examples for each major type of chart. Each of the examples is supplemented with
explanations about these five criteria.
Title Descriptiveness Most readers look first at the chart’s title to grasp its message. Thus, the title
should explain the primary point of the chart. However, it must be short enough for the reader to
process quickly (generally less than ten words). In some cases you may add a subtitle if the short title
is not sufficient.
Consider Figure 12.2, which illustrates identical information with a less effective and more effective
line chart. In the less effective chart on the left, the chart title is a short and relatively unhelpful
phrase, “Staff & Service Ratings.” By contrast, the chart title in the more effective chart on the right
uses a title and a subtitle. The main title, “Improvement in Staff & Service Ratings,” uses the first word
to immediately point out the main theme of the chart. The subtitle, in just seven words, accentuates
the idea that the improvement was intentional or goal-based (“Raising Our Performance”) and that
the improvement far exceeded that of primary competitors.
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FIGURE 12.2
Less Effective and More Effective Line Charts
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Focal Points A chart should draw the reader’s attention to the most-critical relationships and ideas.
Much like unified paragraphs (Chapter 6), in which all sentences focus on one main idea, each of the
chart’s focal points should support one main idea. The focal points can be visually generated in many
interesting ways—for example, font choices (bold, italics ), color, size, and callout boxes.
In the more effective line chart in Figure 12.2, a variety of focal points highlight the improvement
in staff and service ratings at the Prestigio. The callout box centered in the chart directs the reader to
the point in time when the Prestigio launched its staff and service initiative, allowing the reader to
trace the improvement in ratings since that time. The Prestigio data series is emphasized with a
darker, thicker line that is placed on top of the other data series (for the other hotels).
Information Sufficiency Just how much information should you include in your charts? Charts should
contain enough information for the reader to quickly and reasonably understand the ideas that are
being displayed. Clear labels and legends should demonstrate what is being measured and in what
units. In some cases, readers will expect to know data values at each point within the chart.
Although the ineffective line chart in Figure 12.2 does contain a legend showing which lines
correspond to which hotels, the meaning of the y -axis is not as clear. A reader may assume that the
data comes from a survey, since ratings is in the title, but be unsure what the range or direction of
the scale is. By contrast, the more effective line chart in Figure 12.2 contains a note indicating the
range of the scale. Many charts place this information in a label along the y -axis.
Ease of Processing Another basic purpose of a chart is to convey complicated information as quickly
as possible. If your readers can’t process the information rapidly, they will lose interest. To some
degree, this requires a balancing act with information sufficiency. The more information you provide,
the more difficult it may be for some readers to process the chart quickly. By selecting only the
necessary information and placing labels and data at appropriate places, you enable your reader to
process the information quickly and efficiently. Ideally, your reader should grasp the key ideas within
10 to 15 seconds.
The less effective line chart in Figure 12.2 reveals several processing problems. The most serious
is that the legend forces the reader to glance back and forth between the lines and the legend to
correctly link the data series. Another problem is that the Prestigio data series, which should be the
center of attention, is placed underneath the other lines, with no special formatting features to make
it stand out. The more effective chart is far easier to process. Data labels appear directly next to each
line so that the reader does not have to glance back and forth between the legend and the plot area.
Furthermore, the Prestigio line is bolder and thicker, and it is placed in front of the other lines to
draw the intended attention.
Takeaway Message An effective chart leaves a lasting impression about your key point. Will your
readers remember your intended main message in two hours? If not, your chart had little impact. The
takeaway is the essence of your chart—how the information, title, focal points, and other formatting
combine to convey a lasting message. Overall, the ineffective line chart in Figure 12.2 leaves little
lasting impression. The reader who studies the chart carefully might see that the Prestigio’s staff and
service ratings improved more than did those of competitors, but the reader has to get through a
compilation of colored lines with little or no contextual reference. Furthermore, the chart offers no
explanation for why this change in ratings may have occurred. By contrast, a reader can rapidly
process the more effective line chart in Figure 12.2. The title, focal points, and simple design lead to
one strong takeaway message: The Prestigio launched a staff and service initiative that has
successfully improved customer satisfaction compared with its major competitors. Figures 12.3,
12.4, and 12.5 present other types of charts with less effective and more effective variations.
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FIGURE 12.3
Less Effective and More Effective Pie Charts
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FIGURE 12.4
Less Effective and More Effective Bar Charts
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FIGURE 12.5
Ineffective Clustered-Column Chart and More Effective Panel of Charts
General Rules of Chart Formatting
Although formatting a chart is secondary to creating a powerful takeaway message, it is by no means
unimportant. Since visuals have an impact even before the reader begins reading, ineffective
formatting can give the reader an impression of sloppy or imprecise work.
Generally, the formatting should be as simple as possible and should accentuate the key data
relationships. If a formatting feature detracts from the key points, remove or improve it. Table 12.6
provides general formatting guidelines for charts.
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TABLE 12.6
Formatting Guidelines for Specific Chart Types
Design Effective Tables
Generally, charts are the most effective way of quickly demonstrating a key point or relationship.
However, charts are limited in the amount of information they can provide. Tables, by contrast, allow
you to provide more data with additional precision. Because of this, charts are generally better for
highlighting a key idea, and tables are generally better for comprehensiveness and precision.
Evaluating the Effectiveness of Tables Like charts, tables are typically more effective with simple
formatting. In addition, the way a table presents data can affect the clarity of its message. Consider,
for example, the tables in Figure 12.6, which are based on identical data. Place yourself in the position
of the reader and assume you have the following question: “Does higher income level correspond
with higher likelihood of purchasing Internet services?” It is difficult to answer this question quickly
by looking at the less effective table. By contrast, glancing at the more effective table rapidly reveals
that purchasing no Internet service (0 days) strongly correlates with the lowest income bracket
(under $30,000/year).
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FIGURE 12.6
A Less Effective and More Effective Table
The less effective table is cluttered due to excessive grid lines, poor labels, and non-indented items.
By contrast, the more effective table limits the number of grid lines. Furthermore, each grid line
serves a distinct purpose. The initial grid lines separate the column labels from the survey data.
Subsequent grid lines separate each category of data, including those for all respondents, gender, and
income level. Indents of items within each category further accentuate the distinctions between
categories.
The second table also is more effective because numerical adjustments have been made. The first
table contains counts of respondents who responded in certain ways. Counts make it difficult for
readers to make effective comparisons quickly. Yet, many readers are also interested in knowing how
many people participated in a survey. By converting the counts into percentages, the more effective
table enables readers to process the information more easily. Placing the counts in parentheses
makes the data comprehensive.
General Rules of Table Formatting Overall, more effective formatting and numerical conversion make
a significant impact on the usefulness of a table. The general guidelines in Table 12.7 will help you
create more effective tables.
TABLE 12.7
Formatting Guidelines for Tables
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Technology Tips
USING ONLINE SURVEY SOFTWARE
Source: SurveyMonkey.com
Conducting surveys has become increasingly easy with various software, such as
SurveyMonkey, Qualtrics, Google Forms, and various add-ins for meeting and social
software. The software, in many cases, helps you rapidly create survey questions. It often
contains a pool of existing questions you can even select from.
In an online format, you can send the survey link to anyone in your contact list, including
colleagues and customers. In other words, such software gives you greater access to survey
respondents than was possible as recently as a few years ago. Furthermore, many companies
specialize in helping you gain access to millions of potential respondents (called an online
panel ). When you conduct market or consumer research, these companies can help you get
a large sample size for nearly any demographic of interest.
Another benefit of using online surveys is that the data is immediately dumped into a
database or spreadsheet in a form you can quickly analyze. Some online survey software
even provides immediate reports that include summary and crosstab statistics (although
you’ll often want to manipulate the data yourself to dig deeper and get answers to particular
questions).
As you use online survey software, keep in mind the following tips:
Apply the same careful and thorough standards you would to any form of business research.
The ease of creating online surveys often leads business professionals to use them carelessly,
not putting enough time into designing the survey questions.
Avoid overusing online surveys. Again, because of the ease of administering online surveys,
employees in many organizations are bombarded with surveys. As a result, employees often
suffer respondent fatigue and respond to surveys less carefully. The results of the survey are
only as good as the careful input of your respondents.
Your challenge: Create a simple but identical survey (3 or 4 questions; choose several
question types such as multiple choice, ranking, and comments) in two different software
platforms. Which features of each platform do you like best? Which platform do you prefer?
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Gathering Information through Secondary Research
In most cases, primary research is ideal. You can carefully tailor it to your specific business problems.
Primary research, however, takes a lot of time and money. Even with sufficient resources, your
organization may lack access to certain types of data. Generally, a far less expensive approach is
secondary research. One advantage of nearly all secondary research is that someone else already
spent the time to conduct and write it up.
Choose a Research Topic
Generally in the workplace, you’ll conduct and write research as requested by your managers or
clients. Many companies provide guidelines for how to approach secondary research. Even under an
assignment from decision makers, you have some freedom to define the scope of your project. In
some college courses, your instructors may give you a broad topic or you may have complete freedom
to select your own topic. When you’re in a position to choose your own research topics, you can follow
several strategies to find a topic that is interesting and valuable to you and others.
Avoid Settling on Your Topic Too Quickly and Pace Your Research Iden-tifying your specific research
topic takes time. Usually, you’ve got several months to deliver a final research report. Make sure to
invest enough time early in the process to carefully explore your options. Ideally, you can spend four
to five hours during the first two weeks of your project carefully weighing your options for a research
topic. Figure 12.7 shows how you might approach a ten-week school research project.
FIGURE 12.7
Sample Timeline for a Ten-Week Research Project
Choose Your Topic Strategically For school projects, consider choosing topics that will help you in
your academic program and in your career. You can help identify topics of strategic interest by asking
yourself questions such as the following: What do I know a lot about already? What would help me
know more about my major or focus of study? What do I want to learn more about from a class I
recently took? What do I need to learn more about to succeed in my first positions out of college?
What kind of research paper could I envision talking about in a job interview? To help you think about
some possible topics, consider some of the topics listed in Table 12.8 (this is a brief list of broad topics
to get you started).
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TABLE 12.8
Broad Research Topics by Business Discipline
You might also consider writing down three to five research topics you’re interested in. For each
topic, answer questions such as the following: Who would be interested in this topic? (This helps you
think about an audience.) What are some specific questions related to each topic? (This helps you
think about the scope of your research—see the next paragraph.) How easily can I get information
about this topic?
Define the Scope of Your Project Early in your research project, you should take a somewhat broad
or vague topic and make it specific and interesting. As you glance through Table 12.8, you’ll notice
these are quite general topics and serve only as starting points. Let’s say you choose a topic such as
social media marketing. This is so broad that you can’t reasonably tackle the topic in a research paper.
You can reduce the scope of your project in a variety of ways. First, try ways to narrow the topic itself:
for example, you might focus the topic of social media marketing to something like developing
customer relationships on Pinterest (in a few hours, you can find dozens of good options). Consider
narrowing your project in terms of an organization or an industry (e.g., how Home Depot develops
customer relationships on Pinterest). You might also confine your project by time (e.g., how Home
Depot has developed customer relationships on Pinterest during the past year).
Find Ways to Make Your Research More Analytical Generally, you make your research more valuable
(and challenging) as you examine relationships and integrate related information. You can examine
causation or correlation (e.g., how corporate Pinterest pages impact purchasing decisions),
comparisons or analogies (e.g., how Lowe’s uses Pinterest pages to develop customer relationships),
benchmarks (e.g., what experts say are best practices on Pinterest), or trends (e.g., how Pinterest
users have changed expectations about content on corporate Pinterest pages over the past three
years). Often, how you decide to approach or analyze your research will end up influencing your final
topic.
Talk to Others Who Can Help You If you’re not sure how to narrow your topic, you might consider
talking with your instructor, a librarian, trusted classmates, or professionals you know. These
conversations will often help you articulate your interests and refine your topics.
Evaluate Data Quality
LO12.5
Evaluate the usefulness of data sources for business research.
As you collect secondary research, carefully evaluate it in terms of data quality. Concern yourself with
the following issues:
● Reliability relates to how dependable the data is—how current and representative.
● Relevance of the data relates to how well it applies to your specific business problem.
● Adaptability relates to how well the research can be altered or revised to meet your specific business
problem.
● Expertise relates to the skill and background of the researchers to address your business problem.
● Biases are tendencies to see issues from particular perspectives. The possibility of biases does not
necessarily imply that secondary research is unreliable; however, when using such research, view the
data cautiously and keep in mind the ultimate objectives of the researchers.
Visit http://connect.mheducation.com for an exercise on this topic.
Some secondary research reports cost thousands of dollars to purchase, whereas others are free.
You have a variety of options to choose from with secondary research, including white papers,
industry publications, business periodicals, scholarly journals, external blogs, and business books.
Each of these types of secondary data has benefits and drawbacks (see Table 12.9). Thus, you will
inevitably face trade-offs as you select secondary data.
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TABLE 12.9
Strengths and Limitations of Data Quality for Primary and Secondary Research Sources
White papers are reports or guides that generally describe research about solving a particular
issue—perhaps one similar to the one you are encountering. They are issued by governments and
organizations. White papers are readily available on many corporate and other organizational
websites. However, they are often biased, since white papers are often produced by industry groups
with an agenda or companies with specific marketing goals related to the white paper. Thus, when
you rely on white papers, you should learn about the agendas of the sponsoring organizations.
Industry publications are written to cater to the specific interests of members in particular
industries. These can include periodicals and reports. Industry reports often are highly reliable,
relevant, and expert-based. However, industry reports are generally expensive, ranging from several
hundred dollars to thousands of dollars. Typically, the Page 389more reliable the industry reports are,
the more expensive they are. Fortunately, many business libraries carry a variety of expensive
industry reports and publications that are free for you to use as long as you are enrolled at your
university.
Business periodicals (magazines, newspapers) provide stories, information, and advice about
contemporary business issues. They are often written by well-respected business journalists and
experts. However, most articles in magazines and periodicals will have limited value in applying to
your specific business problems and your organization. Furthermore, these articles often rely on
anecdotal evidence rather than carefully controlled experiments and survey research. Periodicals
that are industry publications are often far more relevant than general business magazines and
articles.
Scholarly journals contain business research that is extremely reliable. The information comes
from carefully controlled scientific research processes and has been reviewed by experts in the field.
However, scholarly business articles rarely provide useful information for business problems that
you will focus on in the workplace. Rather, scholarly articles focus on more theoretical and abstract
issues. Furthermore, they are generally written with a level of statistical analysis and/or theoretical
background that is difficult to understand.
External blogs and other online resources provide a plethora of information. Since most blogs are
not formally edited or reviewed, the range in reliability is enormous. As you progress in your career,
you will find those blogs that are reliable and relevant to the types of business problems you face. If
you rely on blogs, make sure you carefully determine the expertise of the blog writer(s).
Business and management books range greatly in terms of their overall usefulness. Fortunately,
you can usually better assess the usefulness of business and management books than other
secondary sources because of the many online reviews available and the ability to preview sections
of the books (online and in person at bookstores or libraries). Online reviews can help you gauge how
useful various books can be for your particular business problems.
Conduct Library Research
LO12.6
Conduct secondary research to address a business problem.
Most university libraries have rich stores of information on business. Aside from a significant
collection of books across a wide range of disciplines and topics, your library likely contains a wealth
of digital resources. You likely also have access to thousands of company and industry reports (each
of which cost hundreds and thousands of dollars to consumers); articles from hundreds of business
periodicals, including The Wall Street Journal, Forbes, Bloomberg Businessweek, and many others;
industry-specific periodicals and reports; scholarly journals; and many, many more avenues for
research.
Most university libraries subscribe to dozens of online databases. Popular and useful ones with
business research and articles include EBSCO Business Source Complete, ProQuest, IBISWorld,
Hoover’s, Global Financial Database, Conference Board, eMarketer, Mint Global, NetAdvantage by
Standard & Poor’s, Thomson One, and others. In Figure 12.8, you’ll see a few examples of these
databases and how they present information for your research. In the EBSCOhost window, you’ll
notice the many search options available. In the ProQuest window, you can see links to specialized
reports on such topics as trends and forecasts, market research, or SWOT analyses. In the IBISWorld
window, you can see the categories of information in a particular industry report. Working from this
screen, Jeff can access reliable information about key success factors, cost structure benchmarks,
technology, and many other topics about hotels in the United States.
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IGURE 12.8
Finding Valuable Information with Library Resources
Sources: (top) EBSCOhost; (bottom left) ProQuest; (bottom right) IBISWorld
Navigating the many resources in these databases and identifying the ones that will be most useful
to you take time. You might consider spending several weeks browsing these various databases
simply to become familiar with what’s available. You should also seek a business librarian to help
you identify those databases that best match your interests and needs.
Each of the databases contains search features, and several basic strategies will help you make the
most of them. When you manually search, you can use Boolean operators (and, or) to widen your
search. For example, when Jeff wants to find more information about virtual reality or group tours,
his initial search of this phrase yields nearly 8,000,000 results. By looking for both words separately
(using and ) with quotation marks for each phrase, his search yields a more more manageable 328
results (see Table 12.10). Also, consider using alternative keywords and closely related ideas. Finding
the right sources requires persistence. You might spend hours looking for useful information and
then rapidly find dozens of relevant and useful sources.
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TABLE 12.10
Strategies for Using Search Terms Effectively
Once you enter your terms, most online business databases provide a list of suggested topics based
on commonly indexed terms. These can be very helpful. Notice, for example, Figure 12.9. You will see
the many combinations of indexed terms (with the Page 392thesaurus tool) that result from a manual
search for virtual reality in EBESCOhost. By clicking on these various suggested searches, you can
rapidly find which combinations of search terms yield the best results.
FIGURE 12.9
Using Suggested Terms in Online Business Databases
Source: EBESCOhost
Document Your Research
As you collect secondary research, keeping track of the information sources is critical. Decision
makers expect excellent documentation of your information because this helps them evaluate the
credibility of your report. Since they often make high-stakes decisions based on reports, they expect
to know exactly what the basis is for facts, conclusions, and recommendations you present.
When you keep track of your sources during the research stage, you can efficiently and accurately
document your report. Many novice report writers waste time during the drafting stage trying to
retrace their steps and find the sources for certain pieces of information. Worse, they may make
errors in documentation by providing an incorrect source, casting doubt on the credibility of the
report.
To avoid these problems, experienced writers have a system for recording all sources during the
research stage. Not all report writers use the same system; some use word processing software, while
others use spreadsheets or databases. The key is to create a system that allows you to accurately and
efficiently record sources for your information. In Figure 12.10, you can see how Jeff combines taking
notes with keeping track of his sources. This approach helps him organize his information and allows
him to rapidly provide documentation once he begins drafting his report.
IGURE 12.10
System for Recording Secondary Research Sources during Note Taking
Page 393
Use Online Information for Business Research
For most business research, the information you can access through business databases and other
sources at your library is generally the most reliable. However, you will also likely use Internet
searches outside your library system to find relevant information on your topic. As you do so, keep
in mind the following strategies:
● Always evaluate data quality. The range in quality on the web is immense. Make sure you’re not
using sources that are uninformed or inaccurate.
● Do more than just “Google it.” You can employ many strategies for online research, including the
following:
● Go to reputable business and industry websites and conduct searches. For example, Jeff may go
directly to general periodical or business news sites such as Bloomberg Businessweek or
CNBC.com to do searches. Or he may go to industry sites. When he goes to the United States Tour
Operators Association website, he finds a variety of sources that are not available at his library
and that are more current than the information in business databases (see Figure 12.11).
FIGURE 12.11
Using Industry Websites for Research
Source: USTOA
● Find online discussions and forums about your selected topic. You can learn what current
professionals are saying about a topic by visiting online discussions and forums. For example, on
LinkedIn, you can view the conversations of thousands of professionals on any given topic. Notice
in Figure 12.12 the many options that Jeff has to choose from. Each of these groups holds dozens
of ongoing converations about current practices in the industry.
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FIGURE 12.12
Using Online Groups and Discussion Forums for Research
Source: LinkedIn
● Search beyond text-based information. Increasingly, you can access a wealth of information in
video and audio format. For example, when Jeff is seeking information about virtual reality and
travel, a few simple searches yield thousands of online videos on YouTube. By viewing a few of
these videos, he identifies many green meeting practices that hotels are using. He also gets
information from speeches and presentations that he could not find elsewhere.
● Be persistent. In the age of the Internet, many of us are accustomed to quick answers. Getting solid
business information, however, rarely involves quick answers. Try as many approaches as you can to
find the data you need.
Applying the FAIR Test to Your Research Data and Charts
LO12.7
Evaluate research data, charts, and tables for fairness and effectiveness.
As you conduct research for your reports, frequently evaluate whether you are being fair. For
example, whether you are doing primary or secondary research, make sure you are examining all the
available facts and interpreting them from various perspectives. A common problem is that business
professionals may enter into research with preexisting assumptions or even conclusions. In primary
research, such assumptions may lead you to ask the wrong questions or interpret the data
incorrectly. In secondary research, they may lead you to gather only information that matches your
assumptions and conclusions. For example, if Jeff already assumes that developing and marketing
green meetings makes business sense for the Prestigio, he may inadvertently gravitate to information
that supports his position and avoid information that does not, thus misleading his readers.
Another way you may unintentionally mislead a reader is with numerical data. However, you can
take a few steps to ensure that you represent data fairly and avoid losing credibility. First, whenever
you are unsure of a data relationship, discuss it with your colleagues. Collectively, you will often
arrive at a fair way to represent the information. Also, ask yourself if you have provided enough
information for your readers and audience members to make informed and accurate judgments.
Some business professionals show only the data that supports their points. In other words, they
cherry-pick the data in their favor. This practice is deceptive. Furthermore, some business
professionals distort information, even though it is technically correct. Charts, for example, can be
manipulated to exaggerate or misinform. Notice
Use Online Information for Business Research
For most business research, the information you can access through business databases and other
sources at your library is generally the most reliable. However, you will also likely use Internet
searches outside your library system to find relevant information on your topic. As you do so, keep
in mind the following strategies:
● Always evaluate data quality. The range in quality on the web is immense. Make sure you’re not
using sources that are uninformed or inaccurate.
● Do more than just “Google it.” You can employ many strategies for online research, including the
following:
● Go to reputable business and industry websites and conduct searches. For example, Jeff may go
directly to general periodical or business news sites such as Bloomberg Businessweek or
CNBC.com to do searches. Or he may go to industry sites. When he goes to the United States Tour
Operators Association website, he finds a variety of sources that are not available at his library
and that are more current than the information in business databases (see Figure 12.11).
FIGURE 12.11
Using Industry Websites for Research
Source: USTOA
● Find online discussions and forums about your selected topic. You can learn what current
professionals are saying about a topic by visiting online discussions and forums. For example, on
LinkedIn, you can view the conversations of thousands of professionals on any given topic. Notice
in Figure 12.12 the many options that Jeff has to choose from. Each of these groups holds dozens
of ongoing converations about current practices in the industry.
Page 394
FIGURE 12.12
Using Online Groups and Discussion Forums for Research
Source: LinkedIn
● Search beyond text-based information. Increasingly, you can access a wealth of information in
video and audio format. For example, when Jeff is seeking information about virtual reality and
travel, a few simple searches yield thousands of online videos on YouTube. By viewing a few of
these videos, he identifies many green meeting practices that hotels are using. He also gets
information from speeches and presentations that he could not find elsewhere.
● Be persistent. In the age of the Internet, many of us are accustomed to quick answers. Getting solid
business information, however, rarely involves quick answers. Try as many approaches as you can to
find the data you need.
Applying the FAIR Test to Your Research Data and Charts
LO12.7
Evaluate research data, charts, and tables for fairness and effectiveness.
As you conduct research for your reports, frequently evaluate whether you are being fair. For
example, whether you are doing primary or secondary research, make sure you are examining all the
available facts and interpreting them from various perspectives. A common problem is that business
professionals may enter into research with preexisting assumptions or even conclusions. In primary
research, such assumptions may lead you to ask the wrong questions or interpret the data
incorrectly. In secondary research, they may lead you to gather only information that matches your
assumptions and conclusions. For example, if Jeff already assumes that developing and marketing
green meetings makes business sense for the Prestigio, he may inadvertently gravitate to information
that supports his position and avoid information that does not, thus misleading his readers.
Another way you may unintentionally mislead a reader is with numerical data. However, you can
take a few steps to ensure that you represent data fairly and avoid losing credibility. First, whenever
you are unsure of a data relationship, discuss it with your colleagues. Collectively, you will often
arrive at a fair way to represent the information. Also, ask yourself if you have provided enough
information for your readers and audience members to make informed and accurate judgments.
Some business professionals show only the data that supports their points. In other words, they
cherry-pick the data in their favor. This practice is deceptive. Furthermore, some business
professionals distort information, even though it is technically correct. Charts, for example, can be
manipulated to exaggerate or misinform. Notice Table 12.11, which contains two versions of the
same chart.
Page 395
TABLE 12.11
Creating Fair Charts
As you collect, analyze, and present data to others, ensure that you provide all the relevant facts,
even if they don’t fit into convenient conclusions. Grant access to your data. Your full disclosure of
data to colleagues, clients, and others in your business dealings will pay long-term dividends in terms
of credibility. Many businesses emphasize transparency on an institutional level. As an individual,
when you make compelling numerical arguments through charts, tables, and other formats while also
maintaining a level of personal transparency and full disclosure, you will gain many career
opportunities. Also, remember the impacts of your data on others and present it with respect. For
example, when you collect data on your colleagues’ performance, how you present your information
can impact career opportunities, team cohesion, and morale.
Page 396
IDEAS IN ACTION
Learning from Books
CARL COURT/AFP/Getty Images
Excellent business researchers read and study books to expose themselves to complex ideas.
Oprah Winfrey is among the most popular people in the world due to her authentic and
inspirational media presence, global philanthropic efforts, and immense business success.
She believes books built the foundation for her career. In her 2004 Global Humanitarian
Award acceptance speech at the United Nations, she explained, “Books allowed me to see a
world beyond the front porch of my grandmother’s shotgun house and gave me the power
to see possibilities.” Elsewhere, she has stated, “Books were my path to personal freedom.”
It’s not surprising that one of her most influential efforts over the past few decades has been
Oprah’s Book Club.
Like Winfrey, many business, nonprofit, government, and other leaders credit books with
opening their eyes to new possibilities and sparking new ideas. In fact, many leaders read
several hours each day to continue learning. Even as your career becomes busy and hectic,
find ways to read every day and include book reading as part of your regimen. For instance,
you might set aside 20 minutes a day when you can read without distraction. Consider
carrying a book with you so you can read during “down times,” such as while riding the bus
or sitting in a waiting room. Read what interests you, and set goals for yourself, such as
reading one new book each month. Developing a strong reading habit can keep you
inquisitive and curious and help you develop meaningful approaches to business research.
Sources: Cowles, G. (2018). How to tap your inner reader. The New York Times. Retrieved
from www.nytimes.com/guides/year-of-living-better/how-to-tap-your-inner-reader;
Kniffel, L. (2011, May 25). Reading for life: Oprah Winfrey. American Libraries Magazine.
Retrieved from americanlibrariesmagazine.org/2011/05/25/reading-for-life-oprahwinfrey/; Weller, C. (2017, July 20). 9 of the most successful people share their reading
habits. Business Insider. Retrieved from www.businessinsider.com/what-successful-peopleread-2017-7/#oprah-winfrey-4.
Page 397
Page 398
Key Terms
adaptability, 387
bar charts, 377
biases, 388
business and management books, 389
business periodicals, 389
closed questions, 371
exhaustive, 373
expertise, 388
external blogs, 389
industry publications, 388
line charts, 377
non-leading, 372
open-ended questions, 371
pie charts, 377
primary research, 371
relevance, 387
reliability, 387
scholarly journals, 389
secondary research, 371
unambiguous, 373
white papers, 388
Discussion Exercises
12.1 Chapter Review Questions (LO12.1, LO12.2, LO12.3, LO12.4, LO12.5)
A. Explain the features that distinguish reports from other types of business correspondence.
B. Describe ways in which you can enhance your credibility by creating reports.
C. Discuss the advantages and drawbacks of both primary and secondary business research.
D. Describe strategies for understanding the needs of your audience for reports.
E. Explain why developing clear research objectives is so crucial to business research.
F. Describe principles for effective survey questions.
G. Summarize the primary reasons for using charts and tables.
H. Explain at least three general design principles for charts.
I. Describe unique design and formatting principles that apply to line charts, pie charts, and bar charts.
J. Explain the criteria for judging the quality of research data.
12.2 Ideas in Action Discussion Questions (LO12.4, LO12.7)
In the Ideas in Action section, Oprah Winfrey is quoted as saying “Books allowed me to see a world
beyond the front porch of my grandmother’s shotgun house and gave me the power to see possibilities.
” Elsewhere, she has stated, “Books were my path to personal freedom.”
A. Based on Winfrey’s statements as well as your own experience, in what ways can books help you see
new possibilities and -personal freedom?
B. Based on Winfrey’s statements as well as your own experience, in what ways can a habit of deep
reading help you accomplish professional goals?
C. Develop a list of ten books you want to read next summer. Why did you choose these books?
12.3 Combining Quantitative and Communication Skills (LO12.1, LO12.4, LO12.5, LO12.6)
Lloyd C. Blankfein, chair and CEO of Goldman Sachs, was asked, “What would you like business schools
to teach more of, or less of?” He responded:
Look, I think it’s very important to teach people to have a healthy respect for facts and information. And
you know, to paraphrase Keynes, “to change minds when facts change.” That’s why I think certain
careers—and maybe not intuitive careers—do very well. There’s a lot of lawyers floating around Wall
Street. There’s a lot of engineers. A lot of people who deal in facts and have an appreciation for facts. A
quantitative thing is very helpful. I was a social studies major, but you need to be numerate. If you have
those good quantitative skills, it’s very, very helpful. 6
Based on Blankfein’s comments and your own opinions, respond to the following questions:
A. Why are quantitative skills so highly valued in various business disciplines?
B. How important do you think quantitative skills will be to your career? In what ways?
C. What are your strongest areas in terms of quantitative skills? Weakest areas?
D. What are your strongest areas in terms of spreadsheet software ? Weakest areas?
E. What are five goals you have for improving your quantitative skills?
Page 399
Evaluation Exercises
12.4 Evaluating Charts and Tables in Annual Reports (LO12.4)
Choose an annual report from a company that interests you. Select several tables and graphs from the
report. Evaluate each in terms of design. Describe at least three effective and less effective aspects for
each chart and graph. Also, make one recommendation for improving them.
12.5 Evaluating Charts about Exports (LO12.4)
Examine each of the following charts (Figures 12.13A, B, and C) and respond to the questions below:7
For each of the above charts, describe their weaknesses in terms of the following: (a) title
descriptiveness, (b) focal points, (c) information sufficiency, (d) ease of processing, and (e) takeaway
message.
FIGURE 12.13A
Ineffective Bar Chart
FIGURE 12.13B
IIneffective Pie Chart
FIGURE 12.13C
Ineffective Line Chart
Page 400
Application Exercises
12.6 Developing Research Objectives (LO12.2)
Choose three topics of interest that you could research. Write three specific research objectives that
could provide a clear direction for you to collect primary data or gather secondary research.
12.7 Conducting Survey Research (LO12.3)
Individually or in groups, select a business problem that you can learn more about by conducting survey
research. You will create an online survey for all of your classmates to take, so design your project
around the assumption that you are finding out what university-aged students think or feel about the
topic. Design the survey so that it can be completed in three to five minutes. Do the following:
A. Create the survey with between 5 and 15 survey questions.
B. Administer the survey.
C. Identify the major findings and conclusions.
D. State related recommendations.
E. Create two tables that summarize findings from the survey.
F. Create two charts that display key messages related to the data.
G. Write a report that includes your objectives, methodology, findings, conclusions, and
recommendations.
12.8 Learning about Online Business Databases at Your Library (LO12.6)
Identify five online business databases available through your library. For each, explain what the key
advantages are and provide one limitation. When you have written about each database, write a
concluding statement that identifies which databases are most useful for your business interests.
12.9 Evaluating Data Quality (LO12.5)
Find five data sources related to a topic that interests you. Analyze reliability, relevance, adaptability,
expertise, and biases.
12.10 Creating Charts from the Apple Annual Report 8 (LO12.4)
Assume you are working for Apple and are summarizing key sales data for presentation to an external
audience, such as potential investors or media reporters. You would like to create charts to quickly
summarize your performance and allow others to compare your performance across operating
segments and product lines.
Use the two tables below to create the following charts. Remember to follow effective design principles.
A. Create a line chart to show net sales growth from 2014 to 2018.
B. Create a line chart to show unit sales of the top four product groups from 2014 to 2018.
C. Create a bar chart to show net sales for the five product groups in 2018.
D. Create a pie chart to show net sales for the product groups in 2018.
E. Create a bar chart to show unit sales by operating segments in 2018.
F. Identify two key relationships or comparisons from the table. Create charts that best illustrate these
relationships or comparisons.
G. As directed by your instructor, exchange your charts with a partner from your class. Evaluate one
another’s chart designs in terms of title descriptiveness, focal points, information sufficiency, ease of
processing, and takeaway message.
Table Net Sales, 2014-2018
Notes: Currency figures in millions of dollars and units in thousands.
*Greater China includes China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan.
Page 401
12.11 Revising Charts about Exporting (LO12.4)
A. Revise the ineffective bar chart from Exercise 12.5.
B. Revise the ineffective pie chart from Exercise 12.5.
C. Revise the ineffective line chart from Exercise 12.5.
D. With your instructor’s direction, consider evaluating your charts against those of your peers in the
class. Decide which charts are most effective and share them with the class.
12.12 Evaluate Various Types of Secondary Research Data (LO12.5)
Based on a topic of interest, find at least one of each of the following types of sources: white paper,
industry publication, business periodical, scholarly journal, external blog, and business book. Evaluate
each of the sources in the following areas: reliability, relevance, adaptability, expertise, and bias.
12.13 Planning Research at the Prestigio (LO12.2, LO12.3, LO12.5, LO12.6)
A. Assume the role of Jeff Anderton and conduct research about green meetings. Specifically, your
assignment is to identify best practices for green meetings from the perspective of vendors, compare
marketing approaches, and evaluate the strategic and financial importance of offering green
meetings. Do the following: Write three specific research objectives.
B. Explain strategies for collecting research for each objective.
C. Write three research questions that you could ask conference attendees that would help you
understand what consumers think about green meetings.
D. Identify three online sources about green meetings. Evaluate each in terms of the following:
reliability, relevance, adaptability, expertise, and biases.
Language Mechanics Check
12.14 Review all rules in Appendix A about punctuation, number usage , and grammar. Then, rewrite
each sentence to make all needed corrections.
A. The majority of the marketing managers have argued for a strategy that differentiates the hotel from
local, high end hotels.
B. These managers have focused on a strategy that positions the hotel as an eco friendly sustainable
operation.
C. Other managers especially those in finance worries that this strategy will negatively effect profits.
D. In fact a few finance managers have all ready complained to the senior leadership team.
E. These managers say that the hotel needs to cautiously evaluate a variety of strategic options, before
settling for a green strategy.
F. They also think the hotel faces more pressing threats such as employee moral union demands and
outdated, in room technologies.
G. They say that the hotel should improve employee development programs and invest in inroom
technologies not focus on unproven green strategies.
H. They also say that pay is an important issue and expect significant employee turnover unless the hotel
increases compensation rates.
I. The senior leadership team seems to be taking their time as they consider how to resolve the
differences between the marketing team and the finance team.
J. One board member said she will encourage the board to hold a meeting to weigh strategic options
evaluate current plans and advice the senior leadership team.
Endnotes
1. Kintler, D., & Adams, B. (1998). Independent consulting: A comprehensive guide to building your own
consulting business. Avon, MA: Streetwise.
2. Grimshaw, R. (2005). Communication by numbers. Harvard Management Communication Letter, 8 (3),
3–4.
3. Grimshaw, R. (2005). Communication by numbers. Harvard Management Communication Letter, 8
(3); Wong, D. M. (2010). The Wall Street Journal guide to information graphics: The dos and don’ts of
presenting data, facts, and figures. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
4. Wong, D. M. (2010). The Wall Street Journal guide to information graphics: The dos and don’ts of
presenting data, facts, and figures. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 13.
5. Sandberg, K. D. (2002). Easy on the eyes: A design legend tells how to turn complex “real world”
information into clear visual messages. Harvard Management Communication Letter, 5 (8), 3–5.
6. Bryant, A. (2009, September 1). Lessons learned at Goldman. Corner Office (blog), The New York
Times. Retrieved from www.nytimes.com/2009/09/13/business/13corner.html.
7. Based on data retrieved June 15, 2010, from
www.trade.gov/mas/ian/Jobs/Reports/2008/jobs_by_state_totals.html.
8. Based on 2018 and 2016 Apple annual reports. Available at www.apple.com/investor/.
Design elements: Set of universal icons for mobile app & web: ©Vitalex/Shutterstock; Learning Objective,
Why Does This Matter?, Technology Tips, and Ideas in Action icons: ©McGraw-Hill