BUS 1105 – Business Communications Discussion Forum Unit 1

Examine the 8 Essential Components of Communication from the textbook:Source, Message, Channel, Receiver, Feedback, Environment, Context, InterferenceDefine each in your own words briefly by paraphrasing, not quoting what is in the textbook. Discuss and debate on what would occur if one of these elements was taken out of the process of communication. Highlight the missing element and discuss what its loss would mean to the process.

Introduction

In this unit, you will gain a better understanding, from a business communication perspective, of how communication forms a part of your self-concept, helping you understand yourself and others, solve problems and learn new things, and build your career.  You will learn about the transactional and constructivist models of the communication process as well as the eight most widely recognized elements involved in the process of communication.  You will also learn to distinguish the four audience-based contexts of communication and will discover the challenges and responsibilities of the business communicator.

Reading Assignment

McLean, S. (2010). Business Communication for Success. The Saylor Foundation. Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution- Non-Commercial-Share Alike 3.0 License without attribution as requested by the work’s original creator or licensee.

You are also required to read the syllabus in its entirety as well as the academic integrity documents that can be found above Unit 1 of the course.

Supplemental Readings (these readings are not required but are beneficial for an expanded knowledge base within this unit)

1)    Dale Carnegie, the author of the classic How to Win Friends and Influence People, may have been one of the greatest communicators of the twentieth-century business world. The Dale Carnegie Institute focuses on giving people in business the opportunity to sharpen their skills and improve their performance in order to build positive, steady, and profitable results-

http://www.dalecarnegie.com

2)    To communicate ethically, check your facts. FactCheck is a nonpartisan project of the Annenberg Center for Public Policy at the University of Pennsylvania.

http://www.factcheck.org

Video Resources

EPM. (2019, April 23). The communication process explained [Video]. YouTube.

Additional Resources for ENGL 1103, Business English
Unit 1
1) Read the National Commission on Writing’s findings about the importance of
communication skills in business.
https://archive.nwp.org/cs/public/print/resource/2432
2) Dale Carnegie, author of the classic How to Win Friends and Influence People,
may have been one of the greatest communicators of the twentieth-century
business world. The Dale Carnegie Institute focuses on giving people in
business the opportunity to sharpen their skills and improve their performance
in order to build positive, steady, and profitable resultshttp://www.dalecarnegie.com
3) To communicate ethically, check your facts. FactCheck is a nonpartisan project
of the Annenberg Center for Public Policy at the University of Pennsylvania.
http://www.factcheck.org
Unit 2
1) The “I Have a Dream” speech by Martin Luther King Jr. is one of the most
famous speeches of all time. View it on video and read the text
http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/mlkihaveadream.htm
2) To learn more about being results oriented, visit the Web site of Stephen
Covey, author of the best seller The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People
https://www.stephencovey.com
Unit 3
1) Visit AllYouCanRead.com for a list of the top ten business magazines.
http://www.allyoucanread.com/top-10-business-magazines
2) Appearance counts. Read an article by communications expert Fran Lebo on
enhancing the nonverbal aspects of your document.
http://ezinearticles.com/?The-Second-Law-of-Business-Writing–AppearanceCounts&id=3039288
Unit 4
1) The Online Writing Lab (OWL) at Purdue University includes an area on e-mail
etiquette.
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/636/01
2) The OWL at Purdue also includes pages on memo writing and a sample memo.
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/590/01;http://owl.english.purdue.edu/o
wl/resource/590/04
3) Your online profile counts as much as your résumé.
http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=105483848&sc=nl&cc=es2
0090628
4) Read a Forbes article on “Ten Ways to Torpedo Your Sales Pitch.”
http://www.forbes.com/2007/08/01/microsoft-ebay-symantec-entsalescx_mf_0801byb07_torpedo.html
Unit 5
1) Oral communication skill is key to success in politics. Visit the C-SPAN Web
site to watch and listen to speeches, interviews, and other public speaking
events.
http://www.c-span.org/
2) The Copyright Office of the Library of Congress offers a wide variety of
resources for understanding copyright law and how to avoid plagiarism.
http://www.copyright.gov
Unit 6
1) Watch a YouTube video of a persuasive speech on becoming a hero.

2) Read an informative article on negotiating face-to-face across cultures called
“Cross-Cultural Face-Negotiation: An Analytical Overview” by Stella
TingToomey, presented on April 15, 1992, at Simon Fraser University,
Vancouver.
http://www.cic.sfu.ca/forum/ting-too.html
3) Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab (OWL) provides a guide to persuasive
speaking strategies.
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/588/04
4) This site from Western Washington University provides information about
persuasive techniques and fallacies.
http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~gmyers/esssa/rhetoric.html
Unit 7
1) Visit ExpatExchange: A World of Friends Abroad to learn about the
opportunities, experiences, and emotions of people living and working in
foreign countries and cultures worldwide.
http://www.expatexchange.com/newsarchiveall.cfm
2) Learn more about Geert Hofstede’s research on culture by exploring his Web
site.

Culture

Unit 8
1)
2)
3)
4)
Read about groups and teams on the business Web site 1000 Ventures.
http://www.1000ventures.com/business_guide/crosscuttings/team_main.html
Learn more about Tuckman’s linear model.
http://www.infed.org/thinkers/tuckman.htm
Read a hands-on article about how to conduct productive meetings.
https://hbr.org/1976/03/how-to-run-a-meeting
Take a (nonscientific) quiz to identify your leadership style.
http://psychology.about.com/library/quiz/bl-leadershipquiz.htm
This text was adapted by The Saylor Foundation under a Creative
Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 License without
attribution as requested by the work’s original creator or licensee.
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Preface
Business Communication for Success (BCS) provides a comprehensive, integrated approach to the
study and application of written and oral business communication to serve both student and
professor.
This series features chapters with the following elements:

Learning Objectives

Introductory Exercises

Clear expectations, relevant background, and important theories

Practical, real-world examples

Key Takeaways or quick internal summaries

Key terms that are easily identified

In-chapter assignments

Postchapter assessments linked to objectives and skills acquisition
Each chapter is self-contained, allowing for mix-and-match flexibility and custom or course-specific
design. Each chapter focuses on clear objectives and skill demonstrations that can be easily linked to
your syllabus and state or federal requirements. Supported by internal and external assessments,
each chapter features time-saving and learning-enhancement support for instructors and students.
BCS is designed to help students identify important information, reinforce for retention, and
demonstrate mastery with a clear outcome product.
The text has three content categories:
1.
Foundations
2. Process and products
3. Contexts
The first three chapters form the core foundation for the study of oral and written business
communication. The next sequence of chapters focus on the process of writing, then oral
performance with an emphasis on results. The final sequence focuses on contexts where business
communication occurs, from interpersonal to intercultural, from groups to leadership.
In each of the process and product chapter sequences, the chapters follow a natural flow, from
prewriting to revision, from preparation for a presentation to performance. Each sequence comes
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together in a concluding chapter that focuses on action—where we apply the skills and techniques of
written or oral communication in business, from writing a letter to presenting a sales speech. These
performances not only serve to reinforce real-world applications but also may serve as course
assessments. All chapters are compartmentalized into sections so you can choose what you want to
use and eliminate the rest.
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Chapter 1
Effective Business Communication
Communication leads to community, that is, to understanding, intimacy and mutual
valuing.
Rollo May
I know that you believe that you understood what you think I said, but I am not sure
you realize that what you heard is not what I meant.
Robert J. McCloskey, former State Department spokesman
Getting Started
INT RODU CT ORY E XE RCIS ES
1. Write five words that express what you want to do and where you want to be a year
from now. Take those five words and write a paragraph that clearly articulates your
responses to both “what” and “where.”
2. Think of five words that express what you want to do and where you want to be five
years from now. Share your five words with your classmates and listen to their
responses. What patterns do you observe in the responses? Write a paragraph that
addresses at least one observation.
Communication is an activity, skill, and art that incorporates lessons learned across a
wide spectrum of human knowledge. Perhaps the most time-honored form of
communication is storytelling. We’ve told each other stories for ages to help make sense
of our world, anticipate the future, and certainly to entertain ourselves. The art of
storytelling draws on your understanding of yourself, your message, and how you
communicate it to an audience that is simultaneously communicating back to you. Your
anticipation, reaction, and adaptation to the process will determine how successfully
you are able to communicate. You were not born knowing how to write or even how to
talk—but in the process of growing up, you have undoubtedly learned how to tell, and
how not tell, a story out loud and in writing.
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You didn’t learn to text in a day and didn’t learn all the codes—from LOL (laugh out
loud) to BRB (be right back)—right away. In the same way, learning to communicate
well requires you to read and study how others have expressed themselves, then adapt
what you have learned to your present task—whether it is texting a brief message to a
friend, presenting your qualifications in a job interview, or writing a business report.
You come to this text with skills and an understanding that will provide a valuable
foundation as we explore the communication process.
Effective communication takes preparation, practice, and persistence. There are many
ways to learn communication skills; the school of experience, or “hard knocks,” is one of
them. But in the business environment, a “knock” (or lesson learned) may come at the
expense of your credibility through a blown presentation to a client. The classroom
environment, with a compilation of information and resources such as a text, can offer
you a trial run where you get to try out new ideas and skills before you have to use them
to communicate effectively to make a sale or form a new partnership. Listening to
yourself, or perhaps the comments of others, may help you reflect on new ways to
present, or perceive, thoughts, ideas and concepts. The net result is your growth;
ultimately your ability to communicate in business will improve, opening more doors
than you might anticipate.
As you learn the material in this text, each part will contribute to the whole. The degree
to which you attend to each part will ultimately help give you the skills, confidence, and
preparation to use communication in furthering your career.
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1.1 Why Is It Important to Communicate Well?
L EA RNING O B JEC T IV ES
1. Recognize the importance of communication in gaining a better understanding of
yourself and others.
2. Explain how communication skills help you solve problems, learn new things, and build
your career.
Communication is key to your success—in relationships, in the workplace, as a citizen of
your country, and across your lifetime. Your ability to communicate comes from
experience, and experience can be an effective teacher, but this text and the related
business communication course will offer you a wealth of experiences gathered from
professional speakers across their lifetimes. You can learn from the lessons they’ve
learned and be a more effective communicator right out of the gate.
Business communication can be thought of as a problem solving activity in which
individuals may address the following questions:

What is the situation?

What are some possible communication strategies?

What is the best course of action?

What is the best way to design the chosen message?

What is the best way to deliver the message?
In this book, we will examine this problem solving process and help you learn to apply it
in the kinds of situations you are likely to encounter over the course of your career.
Communication Influences Your Thinking about Yourself and Others
We all share a fundamental drive to communicate. Communication can be defined as
the process of understanding and sharing meaning. [1] You share meaning in what you
say and how you say it, both in oral and written forms. If you could not communicate,
what would life be like? A series of never-ending frustrations? Not being able to ask for
what you need or even to understand the needs of others?
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Being unable to communicate might even mean losing a part of yourself, for you
communicate your self-concept—your sense of self and awareness of who you are—in
many ways. Do you like to write? Do you find it easy to make a phone call to a stranger
or to speak to a room full of people? Perhaps someone told you that you don’t speak
clearly or your grammar needs improvement. Does that make you more or less likely to
want to communicate? For some, it may be a positive challenge, while for others it may
be discouraging. But in all cases, your ability to communicate is central to your selfconcept.
Take a look at your clothes. What are the brands you are wearing? What do you think
they say about you? Do you feel that certain styles of shoes, jewelry, tattoos, music, or
even automobiles express who you are? Part of your self-concept may be that you
express yourself through texting, or through writing longer documents like essays and
research papers, or through the way you speak.
On the other side of the coin, your communications skills help you to understand
others—not just their words, but also their tone of voice, their nonverbal gestures, or the
format of their written documents provide you with clues about who they are and what
their values and priorities may be. Active listening and reading are also part of being a
successful communicator.
Communication Influences How You Learn
When you were an infant, you learned to talk over a period of many months. When you
got older, you didn’t learn to ride a bike, drive a car, or even text a message on your cell
phone in one brief moment. You need to begin the process of improving your speaking
and writing with the frame of mind that it will require effort, persistence, and selfcorrection.
You learn to speak in public by first having conversations, then by answering questions
and expressing your opinions in class, and finally by preparing and delivering a “standup” speech. Similarly, you learn to write by first learning to read, then by writing and
learning to think critically. Your speaking and writing are reflections of your thoughts,
experience, and education. Part of that combination is your level of experience listening
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to other speakers, reading documents and styles of writing, and studying formats similar
to what you aim to produce.
As you study business communication, you may receive suggestions for improvement
and clarification from speakers and writers more experienced than yourself. Take their
suggestions as challenges to improve; don’t give up when your first speech or first draft
does not communicate the message you intend. Stick with it until you get it right. Your
success in communicating is a skill that applies to almost every field of work, and it
makes a difference in your relationships with others.
Remember, luck is simply a combination of preparation and timing. You want to be
prepared to communicate well when given the opportunity. Each time you do a good
job, your success will bring more success.
Communication Represents You and Your Employer
You want to make a good first impression on your friends and family, instructors, and
employer. They all want you to convey a positive image, as it reflects on them. In your
career, you will represent your business or company in spoken and written form. Your
professionalism and attention to detail will reflect positively on you and set you up for
success.
In both oral and written situations, you will benefit from having the ability to
communicate clearly. These are skills you will use for the rest of your life. Positive
improvements in these skills will have a positive impact on your relationships, your
prospects for employment, and your ability to make a difference in the world.
Communication Skills Are Desired by Business and Industry
Oral and written communication proficiencies are consistently ranked in the top ten
desirable skills by employer surveys year after year. In fact, high-powered business
executives sometimes hire consultants to coach them in sharpening their
communication skills. According to the National Association of Colleges and
Employers, [2] the following are the top five personal qualities or skills potential
employers seek:
1. Communication skills (verbal and written)
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2. Strong work ethic
3. Teamwork skills (works well with others, group communication)
4. Initiative
5. Analytical skills
Knowing this, you can see that one way for you to be successful and increase your
promotion potential is to increase your abilities to speak and write effectively.
In September 2004, the National Commission on Writing for America’s Families,
Schools, and Colleges published a study on 120 human resource directors
titled Writing: A Ticket to Work…Or a Ticket Out, A Survey of Business Leaders. [3] The
study found that “writing is both a ‘marker’ of high-skill, high-wage, professional work
and a ‘gatekeeper’ with clear equity implications,” said Bob Kerrey, president of New
School University in New York and chair of the commission. “People unable to express
themselves clearly in writing limit their opportunities for professional, salaried
employment.” [4]
On the other end of the spectrum, it is estimated that over forty million Americans are
illiterate, or unable to functionally read or write. If you are reading this book, you may
not be part of an at-risk group in need of basic skill development, but you still may need
additional training and practice as you raise your skill level.
An individual with excellent communication skills is an asset to every organization. No
matter what career you plan to pursue, learning to express yourself professionally in
speech and in writing will help you get there.
KE Y TA KEA WAY
Communication forms a part of your self-concept, and it helps you understand yourself
and others, solve problems and learn new things, and build your career.
E XE RC IS ES
1. Imagine that you have been hired to make “cold calls” to ask people whether they are
familiar with a new restaurant that has just opened in your neighborhood. Write a script
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for the phone call. Ask a classmate to copresent as you deliver the script orally in class,
as if you were making a phone call to the classmate. Discuss your experience with the
rest of the class.
2. Imagine you have been assigned the task of creating a job description. Identify a job,
locate at least two sample job descriptions, and create one. Please present the job
description to the class and note to what degree communication skills play a role in the
tasks or duties you have included.
[1] Pearson, J., & Nelson, P. (2000). An introduction to human communication: understanding
and sharing (p. 6). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
[2] National Association of Colleges and Employers. (2009). Frequently asked questions.
Retrieved from http://www.naceweb.org/Press/Frequently_Asked_Questions.aspx?referal=
[3] National Commission on Writing for America’s Families, Schools, and Colleges. (2004,
September). Writing: A Ticket to Work…Or a Ticket Out, A Survey of Business Leaders. Retrieved
fromhttp://www.writingcommission.org/pr/writing_for_employ.html
[4] The College Board. (2004, September). Writing skills necessary for employment, says big
business: Writing can be a ticket to professional jobs, says blue-ribbon group. Retrieved
fromhttp://www.writingcommission.org/pr/writing_for_employ.html
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1.2 What Is Communication?
L EA RNING O B JEC T IV ES
1. Define communication and describe communication as a process.
2. Identify and describe the eight essential components of communication.
3. Identify and describe two models of communication.
Many theories have been proposed to describe, predict, and understand the behaviors
and phenomena of which communication consists. When it comes to communicating in
business, we are often less interested in theory than in making sure our communications
generate the desired results. But in order to achieve results, it can be valuable to
understand what communication is and how it works.
Defining Communication
The root of the word “communication” in Latin is communicare, which means to share,
or to make common. [1] Communication is defined as the process of understanding and
sharing meaning. [2]
At the center of our study of communication is the relationship that involves interaction
between participants. This definition serves us well with its emphasis on the process,
which we’ll examine in depth across this text, of coming to understand and share
another’s point of view effectively.
The first key word in this definition is process. A process is a dynamic activity that is
hard to describe because it changes. [3] Imagine you are alone in your kitchen thinking.
Someone you know (say, your mother) enters the kitchen and you talk briefly. What has
changed? Now, imagine that your mother is joined by someone else, someone you
haven’t met before—and this stranger listens intently as you speak, almost as if you were
giving a speech. What has changed? Your perspective might change, and you might
watch your words more closely. The feedback or response from your mother and the
stranger (who are, in essence, your audience) may cause you to reevaluate what you are
saying. When we interact, all these factors—and many more—influence the process of
communication.
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The second key word is understanding: “To understand is to perceive, to interpret, and
to relate our perception and interpretation to what we already know.” [4] If a friend tells
you a story about falling off a bike, what image comes to mind? Now your friend points
out the window and you see a motorcycle lying on the ground. Understanding the words
and the concepts or objects they refer to is an important part of the communication
process.
Next comes the word sharing. Sharing means doing something together with one or
more people. You may share a joint activity, as when you share in compiling a report; or
you may benefit jointly from a resource, as when you and several coworkers share a
pizza. In communication, sharing occurs when you convey thoughts, feelings, ideas, or
insights to others. You can also share with yourself (a process called intrapersonal
communication) when you bring ideas to consciousness, ponder how you feel about
something, or figure out the solution to a problem and have a classic “Aha!” moment
when something becomes clear.
Finally, meaning is what we share through communication. The word “bike” represents
both a bicycle and a short name for a motorcycle. By looking at the context the word is
used in and by asking questions, we can discover the shared meaning of the word and
understand the message.
Eight Essential Components of Communication
In order to better understand the communication process, we can break it down into a
series of eight essential components:
1. Source
2. Message
3. Channel
4. Receiver
5. Feedback
6. Environment
7. Context
8. Interference
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Each of these eight components serves an integral function in the overall process. Let’s
explore them one by one.
Source
The source imagines, creates, and sends the message. In a public speaking situation, the
source is the person giving the speech. He or she conveys the message by sharing new
information with the audience. The speaker also conveys a message through his or her
tone of voice, body language, and choice of clothing. The speaker begins by first
determining the message—what to say and how to say it. The second step involves
encoding the message by choosing just the right order or the perfect words to convey the
intended meaning. The third step is to present or send the information to the receiver or
audience. Finally, by watching for the audience’s reaction, the source perceives how well
they received the message and responds with clarification or supporting information.
Message
“The message is the stimulus or meaning produced by the source for the receiver or
audience.” [5] When you plan to give a speech or write a report, your message may seem
to be only the words you choose that will convey your meaning. But that is just the
beginning. The words are brought together with grammar and organization. You may
choose to save your most important point for last. The message also consists of the way
you say it—in a speech, with your tone of voice, your body language, and your
appearance—and in a report, with your writing style, punctuation, and the headings and
formatting you choose. In addition, part of the message may be the environment or
context you present it in and the noise that might make your message hard to hear or
see.
Imagine, for example, that you are addressing a large audience of sales reps and are
aware there is a World Series game tonight. Your audience might have a hard time
settling down, but you may choose to open with, “I understand there is an important
game tonight.” In this way, by expressing verbally something that most people in your
audience are aware of and interested in, you might grasp and focus their attention.
Channel
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“The channel is the way in which a message or messages travel between source and
receiver.” [6] For example, think of your television. How many channels do you have on
your television? Each channel takes up some space, even in a digital world, in the cable
or in the signal that brings the message of each channel to your home. Television
combines an audio signal you hear with a visual signal you see. Together they convey the
message to the receiver or audience. Turn off the volume on your television. Can you
still understand what is happening? Many times you can, because the body language
conveys part of the message of the show. Now turn up the volume but turn around so
that you cannot see the television. You can still hear the dialogue and follow the story
line.
Similarly, when you speak or write, you are using a channel to convey your message.
Spoken channels include face-to-face conversations, speeches, telephone conversations
and voice mail messages, radio, public address systems, and voice over Internet protocol
(VoIP). Written channels include letters, memorandums, purchase orders, invoices,
newspaper and magazine articles, blogs, e-mail, text messages, tweets, and so forth.
Receiver
“The receiver receives the message from the source, analyzing and interpreting the
message in ways both intended and unintended by the source.” [7] To better understand
this component, think of a receiver on a football team. The quarterback throws the
football (message) to a receiver, who must see and interpret where to catch the ball. The
quarterback may intend for the receiver to “catch” his message in one way, but the
receiver may see things differently and miss the football (the intended meaning)
altogether.
As a receiver you listen, see, touch, smell, and/or taste to receive a message. Your
audience “sizes you up,” much as you might check them out long before you take the
stage or open your mouth. The nonverbal responses of your listeners can serve as clues
on how to adjust your opening. By imagining yourself in their place, you anticipate what
you would look for if you were them. Just as a quarterback plans where the receiver will
be in order to place the ball correctly, you too can recognize the interaction between
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source and receiver in a business communication context. All of this happens at the
same time, illustrating why and how communication is always changing.
Feedback
When you respond to the source, intentionally or unintentionally, you are giving
feedback.Feedback is composed of messages the receiver sends back to the source.
Verbal or nonverbal, all these feedback signals allow the source to see how well, how
accurately (or how poorly and inaccurately) the message was received. Feedback also
provides an opportunity for the receiver or audience to ask for clarification, to agree or
disagree, or to indicate that the source could make the message more interesting. As the
amount of feedback increases, the accuracy of communication also increases. [8]
For example, suppose you are a sales manager participating in a conference call with
four sales reps. As the source, you want to tell the reps to take advantage of the fact that
it is World Series season to close sales on baseball-related sports gear. You state your
message, but you hear no replies from your listeners. You might assume that this means
they understood and agreed with you, but later in the month you might be disappointed
to find that very few sales were made. If you followed up your message with a request for
feedback (“Does this make sense? Do any of you have any questions?”) you might have
an opportunity to clarify your message, and to find out whether any of the sales reps
believed your suggestion would not work with their customers.
Environment
“The environment is the atmosphere, physical and psychological, where you send and
receive messages.” [9] The environment can include the tables, chairs, lighting, and
sound equipment that are in the room. The room itself is an example of the
environment. The environment can also include factors like formal dress, that may
indicate whether a discussion is open and caring or more professional and formal.
People may be more likely to have an intimate conversation when they are physically
close to each other, and less likely when they can only see each other from across the
room. In that case, they may text each other, itself an intimate form of communication.
The choice to text is influenced by the environment. As a speaker, your environment will
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impact and play a role in your speech. It’s always a good idea to go check out where
you’ll be speaking before the day of the actual presentation.
Context
“The context of the communication interaction involves the setting, scene, and
expectations of the individuals involved.” [10] A professional communication context may
involve business suits (environmental cues) that directly or indirectly influence
expectations of language and behavior among the participants.
A presentation or discussion does not take place as an isolated event. When you came to
class, you came from somewhere. So did the person seated next to you, as did the
instructor. The degree to which the environment is formal or informal depends on the
contextual expectations for communication held by the participants. The person sitting
next to you may be used to informal communication with instructors, but this particular
instructor may be used to verbal and nonverbal displays of respect in the academic
environment. You may be used to formal interactions with instructors as well, and find
your classmate’s question of “Hey Teacher, do we have homework today?” as rude and
inconsiderate when they see it as normal. The nonverbal response from the instructor
will certainly give you a clue about how they perceive the interaction, both the word
choices and how they were said.
Context is all about what people expect from each other, and we often create those
expectations out of environmental cues. Traditional gatherings like weddings or
quinceañeras are often formal events. There is a time for quiet social greetings, a time
for silence as the bride walks down the aisle, or the father may have the first dance with
his daughter as she is transformed from a girl to womanhood in the eyes of her
community. In either celebration there may come a time for rambunctious celebration
and dancing. You may be called upon to give a toast, and the wedding or quinceañera
context will influence your presentation, timing, and effectiveness.
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In a business meeting, who speaks first? That probably has some relation to the position
and role each person has outside the meeting. Context plays a very important role in
communication, particularly across cultures.
Interference
Interference, also called noise, can come from any source. “Interference is anything that
blocks or changes the source’s intended meaning of the message.” [11] For example, if you
drove a car to work or school, chances are you were surrounded by noise. Car horns,
billboards, or perhaps the radio in your car interrupted your thoughts, or your
conversation with a passenger.
Psychological noise is what happens when your thoughts occupy your attention while
you are hearing, or reading, a message. Imagine that it is 4:45 p.m. and your boss, who
is at a meeting in another city, e-mails you asking for last month’s sales figures, an
analysis of current sales projections, and the sales figures from the same month for the
past five years. You may open the e-mail, start to read, and think, “Great—no problem—I
have those figures and that analysis right here in my computer.” You fire off a reply with
last month’s sales figures and the current projections attached. Then, at five o’clock, you
turn off your computer and go home. The next morning, your boss calls on the phone to
tell you he was inconvenienced because you neglected to include the sales figures from
the previous years. What was the problem? Interference: by thinking about how you
wanted to respond to your boss’s message, you prevented yourself from reading
attentively enough to understand the whole message.
Interference can come from other sources, too. Perhaps you are hungry, and your
attention to your current situation interferes with your ability to listen. Maybe the office
is hot and stuffy. If you were a member of an audience listening to an executive speech,
how could this impact your ability to listen and participate?
Noise interferes with normal encoding and decoding of the message carried by the
channel between source and receiver. Not all noise is bad, but noise interferes with the
communication process. For example, your cell phone ringtone may be a welcome noise
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to you, but it may interrupt the communication process in class and bother your
classmates.
Two Models of Communication
Researchers have observed that when communication takes place, the source and the
receiver may send messages at the same time, often overlapping. You, as the speaker,
will often play both roles, as source and receiver. You’ll focus on the communication and
the reception of your messages to the audience. The audience will respond in the form of
feedback that will give you important clues. While there are many models of
communication, here we will focus on two that offer perspectives and lessons for
business communicators.
Rather than looking at the source sending a message and someone receiving it as two
distinct acts, researchers often view communication as a transactional process (Figure
1.3 “Transactional Model of Communication”), with actions often happening at the same
time. The distinction between source and receiver is blurred in conversational turntaking, for example, where both participants play both roles simultaneously.
Figure 1.3 Transactional Model of Communication
Researchers have also examined the idea that we all construct our own interpretations
of the message. As the State Department quote at the beginning of this chapter
indicates, what I said and what you heard may be different. In the constructivist model
(Figure 1.4 “Constructivist Model of Communication”), we focus on the negotiated
meaning, or common ground, when trying to describe communication. [12], [13]
Imagine that you are visiting Atlanta, Georgia, and go to a restaurant for dinner. When
asked if you want a “Coke,” you may reply, “sure.” The waiter may then ask you again,
“what kind?” and you may reply, “Coke is fine.” The waiter then may ask a third time,
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“what kind of soft drink would you like?” The misunderstanding in this example is that
in Atlanta, the home of the Coca-Cola Company, most soft drinks are generically
referred to as “Coke.” When you order a soft drink, you need to specify what type, even if
you wish to order a beverage that is not a cola or not even made by the Coca-Cola
Company. To someone from other regions of the United States, the words “pop,” “soda
pop,” or “soda” may be the familiar way to refer to a soft drink; not necessarily the brand
“Coke.” In this example, both you and the waiter understand the word “Coke,” but you
each understand it to mean something different. In order to communicate, you must
each realize what the term means to the other person, and establish common ground, in
order to fully understand the request and provide an answer.
Figure 1.4 Constructivist Model of Communication
Because we carry the multiple meanings of words, gestures, and ideas within us, we can
use a dictionary to guide us, but we will still need to negotiate meaning.
KE Y TA KEA WAY
The communication process involves understanding, sharing, and meaning, and it
consists of eight essential elements: source, message, channel, receiver, feedback,
environment, context, and interference. Among the models of communication are the
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transactional process, in which actions happen simultaneously, and the constructivist
model, which focuses on shared meaning.
E XE RC IS ES
1. Draw what you think communication looks like. Share your drawing with your
classmates.
2. List three environmental cues and indicate how they influence your expectations for
communication. Please share your results with your classmates.
3. How does context influence your communication? Consider the language and culture
people grew up with, and the role these play in communication styles.
4. If you could design the perfect date, what activities, places, and/or environmental cues
would you include to set the mood? Please share your results with your classmates.
5. Observe two people talking. Describe their communication. See if you can find all eight
components and provide an example for each one.
6. What assumptions are present in transactional model of communication? Find an
example of a model of communication in your workplace or classroom, and provide an
example for all eight components.
[1] Weekley, E. (1967). An etymological dictionary of modern English (Vol. 1, p. 338). New York,
NY: Dover Publications.
[2] Pearson, J., & Nelson, P. (2000). An introduction to human communication: Understanding
and sharing (p. 6). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
[3] Pearson, J., & Nelson, P. (2000). An introduction to human communication: Understanding
and sharing. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
[4] McLean, S. (2003). The basics of speech communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
[5] McLean, S. (2005). The basics of interpersonal communication (p. 10). Boston, MA: Allyn &
Bacon.
[6] McLean, S. (2005). The basics of interpersonal communication (p. 10). Boston, MA: Allyn &
Bacon.
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[7] McLean, S. (2005). The basics of interpersonal communication (p. 10). Boston, MA: Allyn &
Bacon.
[8] Leavitt, H., & Mueller, R. (1951). Some effects of feedback on communication. Human
Relations, 4, 401–410.
[9] McLean, S. (2005). The basics of interpersonal communication (p. 11). Boston, MA: Allyn &
Bacon.
[10] McLean, S. (2005). The basics of interpersonal communication (p.11). Boston, MA: Allyn &
Bacon.
[11] McLean, S. (2005). The basics of interpersonal communication (p. 11). Boston, MA: Allyn &
Bacon.
[12] Pearce, W. B., & Cronen, V. (1980). Communication, action, and meaning: The creating of
social realities. New York, NY: Praeger.
[13] Cronen, V., & Pearce, W. B. (1982). The coordinated management of meaning: A theory of
communication. In F. E. Dance (Ed.), Human communication theory (pp. 61–89). New York, NY:
Harper & Row.
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1.3 Communication in Context
L EA RNING O B JEC T IV E
1. Identify and describe five types of communication contexts.
Now that we have examined the eight components of communication, let’s examine this
in context. Is a quiet dinner conversation with someone you care about the same
experience as a discussion in class or giving a speech? Is sending a text message to a
friend the same experience as writing a professional project proposal or a purchase
order? Each context has an influence on the communication process. Contexts can
overlap, creating an even more dynamic process. You have been communicating in
many of these contexts across your lifetime, and you’ll be able to apply what you’ve
learned through experience in each context to business communication.
Intrapersonal Communication
Have you ever listened to a speech or lecture and gotten caught up in your thoughts so
that, while the speaker continued, you were no longer listening? During a phone
conversation, have you ever been thinking about what you are going to say, or what
question you might ask, instead of listening to the other person? Finally, have you ever
told yourself how you did after you wrote a document or gave a presentation? As you
“talk with yourself” you are engaged in intrapersonal communication.
Intrapersonal communication involves one person; it is often called “self-talk.” [1]Donna
Vocate’s [2] book on intrapersonal communication explains how, as we use language to
reflect on our own experiences, we talk ourselves through situations. For example, the
voice within you that tells you, “Keep on Going! I can DO IT!” when you are putting your
all into completing a five-mile race; or that says, “This report I’ve written is pretty good.”
Your intrapersonal communication can be positive or negative, and directly influences
how you perceive and react to situations and communication with others.
What you perceive in communication with others is also influenced by your culture,
native language, and your world view. As the German philosopher Jürgen Habermas
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said, “Every process of reaching understanding takes place against the background of a
culturally ingrained preunderstanding.” [3]
For example, you may have certain expectations of time and punctuality. You weren’t
born with them, so where did you learn them? From those around you as you grew up.
What was normal for them became normal for you, but not everyone’s idea of normal is
the same.
When your supervisor invites you to a meeting and says it will start at 7 p.m., does that
mean 7:00 sharp, 7-ish, or even 7:30? In the business context, when a meeting is
supposed to start at 9 a.m., is it promptly a 9 a.m.? Variations in time expectations
depend on regional and national culture as well as individual corporate cultures. In
some companies, everyone may be expected to arrive ten to fifteen minutes before the
announced start time to take their seats and be ready to commence business at 9:00
sharp. In other companies, “meeting and greeting” from about 9 to 9:05 or even 9:10 is
the norm. When you are unfamiliar with the expectations for a business event, it is
always wise to err on the side of being punctual, regardless of what your internal
assumptions about time and punctuality may be.
Interpersonal Communication
The second major context within the field of communication is interpersonal
communication.Interpersonal communication normally involves two people, and can
range from intimate and very personal to formal and impersonal. You may carry on a
conversation with a loved one, sharing a serious concern. Later, at work, you may have a
brief conversation about plans for the weekend with the security guard on your way
home. What’s the difference? Both scenarios involve interpersonal communication, but
are different in levels of intimacy. The first example implies a trusting relationship
established over time between two caring individuals. The second example level implies
some previous familiarity, and is really more about acknowledging each other than any
actual exchange of information, much like saying hello or goodbye.
Group Communication
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Have you ever noticed how a small group of people in class sit near each other? Perhaps
they are members of the same sports program, or just friends, but no doubt they often
engage in group communication.
“Group communication is a dynamic process where a small number of people engage in
a conversation.” [4] Group communication is generally defined as involving three to eight
people. The larger the group, the more likely it is to break down into smaller groups.
To take a page from marketing, does your audience have segments or any points of
convergence/divergence? We could consider factors like age, education, sex, and
location to learn more about groups and their general preferences as well as dislikes.
You may find several groups within the larger audience, such as specific areas of
education, and use this knowledge to increase your effectiveness as a business
communicator.
Public Communication
In public communication, one person speaks to a group of people; the same is true of
public written communication, where one person writes a message to be read by a small
or large group. The speaker or writer may ask questions, and engage the audience in a
discussion (in writing, examples are an e-mail discussion or a point-counter-point series
of letters to the editor), but the dynamics of the conversation are distinct from group
communication, where different rules apply. In a public speaking situation, the group
normally defers to the speaker. For example, the boss speaks to everyone, and the sales
team quietly listens without interruption.
This generalization is changing as norms and expectations change, and many cultures
have a tradition of “call outs” or interjections that are not to be interpreted as
interruptions or competition for the floor, but instead as affirmations. The boss may say,
as part of a charged-up motivational speech, “Do you hear me?” and the sales team is
expected to call back “Yes Sir!” The boss, as a public speaker, recognizes that
intrapersonal communication (thoughts of the individual members) or interpersonal
communication (communication between team members) may interfere with this classic
public speaking dynamic of all to one, or the audience devoting all its attention to the
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speaker, and incorporate attention getting and engagement strategies to keep the sales
team focused on the message.
Mass Communication
How do you tell everyone on campus where and when all the classes are held? Would a
speech from the front steps work? Perhaps it might meet the need if your school is a
very small one. A written schedule that lists all classes would be a better alternative.
How do you let everyone know there is a sale on in your store, or that your new product
will meet their needs, or that your position on a political issue is the same as your
constituents? You send a message to as many people as you can through mass
communication. Does everyone receive mass communication the same way the might
receive a personal phone call? Not likely. Some people who receive mass mailings
assume that they are “junk mail” (i.e., that they do not meet the recipients’ needs) and
throw them away unopened. People may tune out a television advertisement with a click
of the mute button, delete tweets or ignore friend requests on Facebook by the
hundreds, or send all unsolicited e-mail straight to the spam folder unread.
Mass media is a powerful force in modern society and our daily lives, and is adapting
rapidly to new technologies. Mass communication involves sending a single message to
a group. It allows us to communicate our message to a large number of people, but we
are limited in our ability to tailor our message to specific audiences, groups, or
individuals. As a business communicator, you can use multimedia as a visual aid or
reference common programs, films, or other images that your audience finds familiar
yet engaging. You can tweet a picture that is worth far more than 140 characters, and
you are just as likely to elicit a significant response. By choosing messages or references
that many audience members will recognize or can identify with, you can develop
common ground and increase the appeal of your message.
KE Y TA KEA WAY
Communication contexts include intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, public, and
mass communication. Each context has its advantages and disadvantages, and its
appropriate and inappropriate uses.
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E XE RC IS ES
1. Please recall a time when you gave a speech in front of a group. How did you feel?
What was your experience? What did you learn from your experience?
2. If you were asked to get the attention of your peers, what image or word would
you choose and why?
3. If you were asked to get the attention of someone like yourself, what image or
word would you choose and why?
4. Make a list of mass communication messages you observe for a one hour period of
time. Share your list with classmates.
[1] Wood, J. (1997). Communication in our lives (p. 22). Boston, MA: Wadsworth.
[2] Vocate, D. (Ed.). (1994). Intrapersonal communication: Different voices, different minds.
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
[3] Habermas, J. (1984). The theory of communicative action (Vol. 1, p. 100). Boston, MA:
Beacon Press.
[4] McLean, S. (2005). The basics of interpersonal communication (p. 14). Boston, MA: Allyn &
Bacon.
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1.4 Your Responsibilities as a Communicator
L EA RNING O B JEC T IV E
1. Discuss and provide several examples of each of the two main responsibilities of a
business communicator.
Whenever you speak or write in a business environment, you have certain responsibilities to your
audience, your employer, and your profession. Your audience comes to you with an inherent set of
expectations that you will fulfill these responsibilities. The specific expectations may change given
the context or environment, but two central ideas will remain: be prepared, and be ethical.
Communicator Is Prepared
As the business communicator’s first responsibility, preparation includes several facets
which we will examine: organization, clarity, and being concise and punctual.
Being prepared means that you have selected a topic appropriate to your audience,
gathered enough information to cover the topic well, put your information into a logical
sequence, and considered how best to present it. If your communication is a written one,
you have written an outline and at least one rough draft, read it over to improve your
writing and correct errors, and sought feedback where appropriate. If your
communication is oral, you have practiced several times before your actual
performance.
The Prepared Communicator Is Organized
Part of being prepared is being organized. Aristotle called this logos, or logic, and it
involves the steps or points that lead your communication to a conclusion. Once you’ve
invested time in researching your topic, you will want to narrow your focus to a few key
points and consider how you’ll present them. On any given topic there is a wealth of
information; your job is to narrow that content down to a manageable level, serving the
role of gatekeeper by selecting some information and “de-selecting,” or choosing to not
include other points or ideas.
You also need to consider how to link your main points together for your audience. Use
transitions to provide signposts or cues for your audience to follow along. “Now that
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we’ve examined X, let’s consider Y” is a transitional statement that provides a cue that
you are moving from topic to topic. Your listeners or readers will appreciate your being
well organized so that they can follow your message from point to point.
The Prepared Communicator Is Clear
You have probably had the unhappy experience of reading or listening to a
communication that was vague and wandering. Part of being prepared is being clear. If
your message is unclear, the audience will lose interest and tune you out, bringing an
end to effective communication.
Interestingly, clarity begins with intrapersonal communication: you need to have a clear
idea in your mind of what you want to say before you can say it clearly to someone else.
At the interpersonal level, clarity involves considering your audience, as you will want to
choose words and phrases they understand and avoid jargon or slang that may be
unfamiliar to them.
Clarity also involves presentation. A brilliant message scrawled in illegible handwriting,
or in pale gray type on gray paper, will not be clear. When it comes to oral
communication, if you mumble your words, speak too quickly or use a monotonous tone
of voice, or stumble over certain words or phrases, the clarity of your presentation will
suffer.
Technology also plays a part; if you are using a microphone or conducting a
teleconference, clarity will depend on this equipment functioning properly—which
brings us back to the importance of preparation. In this case, in addition to preparing
your speech, you need to prepare by testing the equipment ahead of time.
The Prepared Communicator Is Concise and Punctual
Concise means brief and to the point. In most business communications you are
expected to “get down to business” right away. Being prepared includes being able to
state your points clearly and support them with clear evidence in a relatively
straightforward, linear way.
It may be tempting to show how much you know by incorporating additional
information into your document or speech, but in so doing you run the risk of boring,
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confusing, or overloading your audience. Talking in circles or indulging in tangents,
where you get off topic or go too deep, can hinder an audience’s ability to grasp your
message. Be to the point and concise in your choice of words, organization, and even
visual aids.
Being concise also involves being sensitive to time constraints. How many times have
you listened to a speaker say “in conclusion” only to continue speaking for what seems
like forever? How many meetings and conference calls have you attended that got
started late or ran beyond the planned ending time? The solution, of course, is to be
prepared to be punctual. If you are asked to give a five-minute presentation at a
meeting, your coworkers will not appreciate your taking fifteen minutes, any more than
your supervisor would appreciate your submitting a fifteen-page report when you were
asked to write five pages. For oral presentations, time yourself when you rehearse and
make sure you can deliver your message within the allotted number of minutes.
There is one possible exception to this principle. Many non-Western cultures prefer a
less direct approach, where business communication often begins with social or general
comments that a U.S. audience might consider unnecessary. Some cultures also have a
less strict interpretation of time schedules and punctuality. While it is important to
recognize that different cultures have different expectations, the general rule holds true
that good business communication does not waste words or time.
Communicator Is Ethical
The business communicator’s second fundamental responsibility is to be
ethical. Ethics refers to a set of principles or rules for correct conduct. It echoes what
Aristotle called ethos, the communicator’s good character and reputation for doing what
is right. Communicating ethically involves being egalitarian, respectful, and
trustworthy—overall, practicing the “golden rule” of treating your audience the way you
would want to be treated.
Communication can move communities, influence cultures, and change history. It can
motivate people to take stand, consider an argument, or purchase a product. The degree
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to which you consider both the common good and fundamental principles you hold to
be true when crafting your message directly relates to how your message will affect
others.
The Ethical Communicator Is Egalitarian
The word “egalitarian” comes from the root “equal.” To be egalitarian is to believe in
basic equality: that all people should share equally in the benefits and burdens of a
society. It means that everyone is entitled to the same respect, expectations, access to
information, and rewards of participation in a group.
To communicate in an egalitarian manner, speak and write in a way that is
comprehensible and relevant to all your listeners or readers, not just those who are “like
you” in terms of age, gender, race or ethnicity, or other characteristics.
In business, you will often communicate to people with certain professional
qualifications. For example, you may draft a memo addressed to all the nurses in a
certain hospital, or give a speech to all the adjusters in a certain branch of an insurance
company. Being egalitarian does not mean you have to avoid professional terminology
that is understood by nurses or insurance adjusters. But it does mean that your hospital
letter should be worded for all the hospital’s nurses—not just female nurses, not just
nurses working directly with patients, not just nurses under age fifty-five. An egalitarian
communicator seeks to unify the audience by using ideas and language that are
appropriate for all the message’s readers or listeners.
The Ethical Communicator Is Respectful
People are influenced by emotions as well as logic. Aristotle named pathos, or passion,
enthusiasm and energy, as the third of his three important parts of communicating
afterlogos and ethos.
Most of us have probably seen an audience manipulated by a “cult of personality,”
believing whatever the speaker said simply because of how dramatically he or she
delivered a speech; by being manipulative, the speaker fails to respect the audience. We
may have also seen people hurt by sarcasm, insults, and other disrespectful forms of
communication.
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This does not mean that passion and enthusiasm are out of place in business
communication. Indeed, they are very important. You can hardly expect your audience
to care about your message if you don’t show that you care about it yourself. If your
topic is worth writing or speaking about, make an effort to show your audience why it is
worthwhile by speaking enthusiastically or using a dynamic writing style. Doing so, in
fact, shows respect for their time and their intelligence.
However, the ethical communicator will be passionate and enthusiastic without being
disrespectful. Losing one’s temper and being abusive are generally regarded as showing
a lack of professionalism (and could even involve legal consequences for you or your
employer). When you disagree strongly with a coworker, feel deeply annoyed with a
difficult customer, or find serious fault with a competitor’s product, it is important to
express such sentiments respectfully. For example, instead of telling a customer, “I’ve
had it with your complaints!” a respectful business communicator might say, “I’m
having trouble seeing how I can fix this situation. Would you explain to me what you
want to see happen?”
The Ethical Communicator Is Trustworthy
Trust is a key component in communication, and this is especially true in business. As a
consumer, would you choose to buy merchandise from a company you did not trust? If
you were an employer, would you hire someone you did not trust?
Your goal as a communicator is to build a healthy relationship with your audience, and
to do that you must show them why they can trust you and why the information you are
about to give them is believable. One way to do this is to begin your message by
providing some information about your qualifications and background, your interest in
the topic, or your reasons for communicating at this particular time.
Your audience will expect that what you say is the truth as you understand it. This
means that you have not intentionally omitted, deleted, or taken information out of
context simply to prove your points. They will listen to what you say and how you say it,
but also to what you don’t say or do. You may consider more than one perspective on
your topic, and then select the perspective you perceive to be correct, giving concrete
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reasons why you came to this conclusion. People in the audience may have considered
or believe in some of the perspectives you consider, and your attention to them will
indicate you have done your homework.
Being worthy of trust is something you earn with an audience. Many wise people have
observed that trust is hard to build but easy to lose. A communicator may not know
something and still be trustworthy, but it’s a violation of trust to pretend you know
something when you don’t. Communicate what you know, and if you don’t know
something, research it before you speak or write. If you are asked a question to which
you don’t know the answer, say “I don’t know the answer but I will research it and get
back to you” (and then make sure you follow through later). This will go over much
better with the audience than trying to cover by stumbling through an answer or
portraying yourself as knowledgeable on an issue that you are not.
The “Golden Rule”
When in doubt, remember the “golden rule,” which says to treat others the way you
would like to be treated. In all its many forms, the golden rule incorporates human
kindness, cooperation, and reciprocity across cultures, languages, backgrounds and
interests. Regardless of where you travel, who you communicate with, or what your
audience is like, remember how you would feel if you were on the receiving end of your
communication, and act accordingly.
KE Y TA KEA WAY
As a communicator, you are responsible for being prepared and being ethical. Being
prepared includes being organized, clear, concise, and punctual. Being ethical includes
being egalitarian, respectful, and trustworthy and overall, practicing the “golden rule.”
E XE RC IS ES
1. Recall one time you felt offended or insulted in a conversation. What contributed to your
perception? Please share your comments with classmates.
2. When someone lost your trust, were they able earn it back? Please share your
comments with classmates?
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3. Does the communicator have a responsibility to the audience? Does the audience have a
responsibility to the speaker? Why or why not? Please share your comments with
classmates.
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1.5 Additional Resources
The International Association of Business Communicators (IABC) is a global network of
communication professionals committed to improving organizational effectiveness through strategic
communication. http://www.iabc.com
Explore the Web site of the National Communication Association, the largest U.S. organization
dedicated to communication. http://www.natcom.org
Read The National Commission on Writing’s findings about the importance of communication skills
in business. http://www.writingcommission.org/pr/writing_for_employ.html
The National Association of Colleges and Employers offers news about employment prospects for
college graduates. http://www.naceweb.org
Dale Carnegie, author of the classic How to Win Friends and Influence People, may have been
one of the greatest communicators of the twentieth-century business world. The Dale Carnegie
Institute focuses on giving people in business the opportunity to sharpen their skills and improve
their performance in order to build positive, steady, and profitable
results.http://www.dalecarnegie.com
Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab (OWL) provides a wealth of resources for writing
projects. http://owl.english.purdue.edu
To communicate ethically, check your facts. FactCheck is a nonpartisan project of the Annenberg
Center for Public Policy at the University of Pennsylvania.http://www.factcheck.org
To communicate ethically, check your facts. PolitiFact is a nonpartisan project of the St. Petersburg
Times; it won a Pulitzer Prize in 2009. http://www.politifact.com
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Chapter 2
Delivering Your Message
Good communication is as stimulating as black coffee and just as hard to sleep after.
Anne Morrow Lindbergh
The meanings of words are not in the words; they are in us.
S. I. Hayakawa
Getting Started
INT RODU CT ORY E XE RCIS ES
1. Can you match the words to their meaning?
___ 1. phat
A. Weird, strange, unfair, or not acceptable
___ 2. dis
B. Something stupid or thoughtless, deserving correction
___ 3. wack
C. Excellent, together, cool
___ 4. smack
D. Old car, generally in poor but serviceable condition
___ 5. down
E. Insult, put down, to dishonor, to display disrespect
___ 6. hooptie F. Get out or leave quickly
___ 7. my bad G. Cool, very interesting, fantastic or amazing
___ 8. player
H. To be in agreement
___ 9. tight
I. Personal mistake
___ 10. jet
J. Person dating with multiple partners, often unaware of each other
2. Do people use the same language in all settings and contexts? Your first answer might be
“sure,” but try this test. For a couple of hours, or even a day, pay attention to how you
speak, and how others speak: the words you say, how you say them, the pacing and
timing used in each context. For example, at home in the morning, in the coffee shop
before work or class, during a break at work with peers or a break between classes with
classmates all count as contexts. Observe how and what language is used in each context
and to what degree they are the same or different.
Answers
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1. 1-C, 2-E, 3-A, 4-B, 5-H, 6-D, 7-I, 8-J, 9-G, 10-F
Successful business communication is often associated with writing and speaking well,
being articulate or proficient with words. Yet, in the quote above, the famous linguist S.
I. Hayakawa wisely observes that meaning lies within us, not in the words we use.
Indeed, communication in this text is defined as the process of understanding and
sharing meaning.[1] When you communicate you are sharing meaning with one or more
other people—this may include members of your family, your community, your work
community, your school, or any group that considers itself a group.
How do you communicate? How do you think? We use language as a system to create
and exchange meaning with one another, and the types of words we use influence both
our perceptions and others interpretation of our meanings. What kinds of words would
you use to describe your thoughts and feelings, your preferences in music, cars, food, or
other things that matter to you?
Imagine that you are using written or spoken language to create a bridge over which you
hope to transport meaning, much like a gift or package, to your receiver. You hope that
your meaning arrives relatively intact, so that your receiver receives something like what
you sent. Will the package look the same to them on the receiving end? Will they
interpret the package, its wrapping and colors, the way you intended? That depends.
What is certain is that they will interpret it based on their framework of experience. The
package represents your words arranged in a pattern that both the source (you) and the
receiver (your audience) can interpret. The words as a package try to contain the
meaning and deliver it intact, but they themselves are not the meaning. That lies within
us.
So is the package empty? Are the words we use empty? Without us to give them life and
meaning, the answer is yes. Knowing what words will correspond to meanings that your
audience holds within themselves will help you communicate more effectively. Knowing
what meanings lie within you is your door to understanding yourself.
This chapter discusses the importance of delivering your message in words. It examines
how the characteristics of language interact in ways that can both improve and diminish
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effective business communication. We will examine how language plays a significant
role in how you perceive and interact with the world, and how culture, language,
education, gender, race, and ethnicity all influence this dynamic process. We will look at
ways to avoid miscommunication and focus on constructive ways to get your message
delivered to your receiver with the meaning you intended.
[1] Pearson, J., & Nelson, P. (2000). An introduction to human communication: Understanding
and sharing. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
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2.1 What Is Language?
L EA RNING O B JEC T IV ES
1. Describe and define “language.”
2. Describe the role of language in perception and the communication process.
Are you reading this sentence? Does it make sense to you? When you read the words I
wrote, what do you hear? A voice in your head? Words across the internal screen of your
mind? If it makes sense, then you may very well hear the voice of the author as you read
along, finding meaning in these arbitrary symbols packaged in discrete units called
words. The words themselves have no meaning except that which you give them.
For example, I’ll write the word “home,” placing it in quotation marks to denote its
separation from the rest of this sentence. When you read that word, what comes to mind
for you? A specific place? Perhaps a building that could also be called a house? Images
of people or another time? “Home,” like “love” and many other words, is quite
individual and open to interpretation.
Still, even though your mental image of home may be quite distinct from mine, we can
communicate effectively. You understand that each sentence has a subject and verb, and
a certain pattern of word order, even though you might not be consciously aware of that
knowledge. You weren’t born speaking or writing, but you mastered—or, more
accurately, are still mastering as we all are—these important skills of self-expression.
The family, group, or community wherein you were raised taught you the code. The code
came in many forms. When do you say “please” or “thank you,” and when do you remain
silent? When is it appropriate to communicate? If it is appropriate, what are the
expectations and how do you accomplish it? You know because you understand the
code.
We often call this code “language”: a system of symbols, words, and/or gestures used to
communicate meaning. Does everyone on earth speak the same language? Obviously,
no. People are raised in different cultures, with different values, beliefs, customs, and
different languages to express those cultural attributes. Even people who speak the same
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language, like speakers of English in London, New Delhi, or Cleveland, speak and
interact using their own words that are community-defined, self-defined, and have room
for interpretation. Within the United States, depending on the context and environment,
you may hear colorful sayings that are quite regional, and may notice an accent, pace, or
tone of communication that is distinct from your own. This variation in our use of
language is a creative way to form relationships and communities, but can also lead to
miscommunication.
Words themselves, then, actually hold no meaning. It takes you and me to use them to
give them life and purpose. Even if we say that the dictionary is the repository of
meaning, the repository itself has no meaning without you or me to read, interpret, and
use its contents. Words change meaning over time. “Nice” once meant overly particular
or fastidious; today it means pleasant or agreeable. “Gay” once meant happy or carefree;
today it refers to homosexuality. The dictionary entry for the meaning of a word changes
because we change how, when, and why we use the word, not the other way around. Do
you know every word in the dictionary? Does anyone? Even if someone did, there are
many possible meanings of the words we exchange, and these multiple meanings can
lead to miscommunication.
Business communication veterans often tell the story of a company that received an
order of machine parts from a new vendor. When they opened the shipment, they found
that it contained a small plastic bag into which the vendor had put several of the parts.
When asked what the bag was for, the vendor explained, “Your contract stated a
thousand units, with maximum 2 percent defective. We produced the defective units
and put them in the bag for you.” If you were the one reading that contract, what would
“defective” mean to you? We may use a word intending to communicate one idea only to
have a coworker miss our meaning entirely.
Sometimes we want our meaning to be crystal clear, and at other times, less so. We may
even want to present an idea from a specific perspective, one that shows our company or
business in a positive light. This may reflect our intentional manipulation of language to
influence meaning, as in choosing to describe a car as “preowned” or an investment as a
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“unique value proposition.” We may also influence other’s understanding of our words
in unintentional ways, from failing to anticipate their response, to ignoring the possible
impact of our word choice.
Languages are living exchange systems of meaning, and are bound by context. If you are
assigned to a team that coordinates with suppliers from Shanghai, China, and a sales
staff in Dubuque, Iowa, you may encounter terms from both groups that influence your
team.
As long as there have been languages and interactions between the people who speak
them, languages have borrowed words (or, more accurately, adopted—for they seldom
give them back). Think of the words “boomerang,” “limousine,” or “pajama”; do you
know which languages they come from? Did you know that “algebra” comes from the
Arabic word “al-jabr,” meaning “restoration”?
Does the word “moco” make sense to you? It may not, but perhaps you recognize it as
the name chosen by Nissan for one of its cars. “Moco” makes sense to both Japanese and
Spanish speakers, but with quite different meanings. The letters come together to form
an arbitrary word that refers to the thought or idea of the thing in
the semantic triangle (see Figure 2.9).
Figure 2.1 Semantic Triangle
Source: Adapted from Ogden and Richards. [1]
This triangle illustrates how the word (which is really nothing more than a combination
of four letters) refers to the thought, which then refers to the thing itself. Who decides
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what “moco” means? To the Japanese, it may mean “cool design,” or even “best friend,”
and may be an apt name for a small, cute car, but to a Spanish speaker, it means
“booger” or “snot”—not a very appealing name for a car.
Each letter stands for a sound, and when they come together in a specific way, the
sounds they represent when spoken express the “word” that symbolizes the event. [2] For
our discussion, the key word we need to address is “symbolizes.” The word stands in for
the actual event, but is not the thing itself. The meaning we associate with it may not be
what we intended. For example, when Honda was contemplating the introduction of the
Honda Fit, another small car, they considered the name “Fitta” for use in Europe. As the
story goes, the Swedish Division Office of Honda explained that “fitta” in Swedish is a
derogatory term for female reproductive organ. The name was promptly changed to
“Jazz.”
The meaning, according to Hayakawa, [3] is within us, and the word serves as a link to
meaning. What will your words represent to the listener? Will your use of a professional
term enhance your credibility and be more precise with a knowledgeable audience, or
will you confuse them?
KE Y TA KEA WAY
Language is a system of words used as symbols to convey ideas, and it has rules of
syntax, semantics, and context. Words have meaning only when interpreted by the
receiver of the message.
E XE RC IS ES
1. Using a dictionary that gives word origins, such as the American Heritage College
Dictionary, Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, or the New Oxford American
Dictionary, find at least ten English words borrowed from other languages. Share your
findings with your classmates.
2. Visit several English-language Web sites from different countries—for example,
Australia, Canada, and the United States. What differences in spelling and word usage do
you find? Discuss your results with your classmates.
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3. From your viewpoint, how do you think thought influences the use of language? Write a
one- to two-page explanation.
4. What is meant by conditioned in this statement: “people in Western cultures do not
realize the extent to which their racial attitudes have been conditioned since early
childhood by the power of words to ennoble or condemn, augment or detract, glorify or
demean?” [4] Discuss your thoughts with a classmate.
5. Translations gone wrong can teach us much about words and meaning. Can you think of
a word or phrase that just doesn’t sound right when it was translated from English into
another language, or vice versa? Share it with the class and discuss what a better
translation would be.
[1] Odgen, C., & Richards, I. (1932). The meaning of meaning: A study of the influence of
language upon thought and of the science of symbolism. New York, NY: Harcourt Brace &
World.
[2] McLean, S. (2003). The basics of speech communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
[3] Hayakawa, S. I. (1978). Language in thought and action. Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich.
[4] Moore, R. (2003). Racism in the English language. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
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2.2 Messages
L EA RNING O B JEC T IV ES
1. Describe three different types of messages and their functions.
2. Describe five different parts of a message and their functions.
Before we explore the principles of language, it will be helpful to stop for a moment and
examine some characteristics of the messages we send when we communicate. When
you write or say something, you not only share the meaning(s) associated with the
words you choose, but you also say something about yourself and your relationship to
the intended recipient. In addition, you say something about what the relationship
means to you as well as your assumed familiarity as you choose formal or informal ways
of expressing yourself. Your message may also carry unintended meanings that you
cannot completely anticipate. Some words are loaded with meaning for some people, so
that by using such words you can “push their buttons” without even realizing what
you’ve done. Messages carry far more than the literal meaning of each word, and in this
section we explore that complexity.
Primary Message Is Not the Whole Message
When considering how to effectively use verbal communication, keep in mind there are
three distinct types of messages you will be communicating: primary, secondary, and
auxiliary. [1]
Primary messages refer to the intentional content, both verbal and nonverbal. These are
the words or ways you choose to express yourself and communicate your message. For
example, if you are sitting at your desk and a coworker stops by to ask you a question,
you may say, “Here, have a seat.” These words are your primary message.
Even such a short, seemingly simple and direct message could be misunderstood. It may
seem obvious that you are not literally offering to “give” a “seat” to your visitor, but to
someone who knows only formal English and is unfamiliar with colloquial expressions,
it may be puzzling. “Have a seat” may be much more difficult to understand than “please
sit down.”
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Secondary messages refer to the unintentional content, both verbal and nonverbal. Your
audience will form impressions of your intentional messages, both negative and
positive, over which you have no control. Perceptions of physical attractiveness, age,
gender, or ethnicity or even simple mannerisms and patterns of speech may
unintentionally influence the message.
Perhaps, out of courtesy, you stand up while offering your visitor a seat; or perhaps your
visitor has an expectation that you ought to do so. Perhaps a photograph of your family
on your desk makes an impression on your visitor. Perhaps a cartoon on your bulletin
board sends a message.
Auxiliary messages refer to the intentional and unintentional ways a primary message is
communicated. This may include vocal inflection, gestures and posture, or rate of
speech that influence the interpretation or perception of your message.
When you say, “Here, have a seat,” do you smile and wave your hand to indicate the
empty chair on the other side of your desk? Or do you look flustered and quickly lift a
pile of file folders out of the way? Are your eyes on your computer as you finish sending
an e-mail before turning your attention to your visitor? Your auxiliary message might
be, “I’m glad you came by, I always enjoy exchanging ideas with you” or “I always learn
something new when someone asks me a question.” On the other hand, it might be, “I’ll
answer your question, but I’m too busy for a long discussion,” or maybe even, “I wish
you’d do your work and not bother me with your dumb questions!”
Parts of a Message
When you create a message, it is often helpful to think of it as having five parts:
1. Attention statement
2. Introduction
3. Body
4. Conclusion
5. Residual message
Each of these parts has its own function.
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The attention statement, as you may guess, is used to capture the attention of your
audience. While it may be used anywhere in your message, it is especially useful at the
outset. There are many ways to attract attention from readers or listeners, but one of the
most effective is the “what’s in it for me” strategy: telling them how your message can
benefit them. An attention statement like, “I’m going to explain how you can save up to
$500 a year on car insurance” is quite likely to hold an audience’s attention.
Once you have your audience’s attention, it is time to move on to the introduction. In
yourintroduction you will make a clear statement your topic; this is also the time to
establish a relationship with your audience. One way to do this is to create common
ground with the audience, drawing on familiar or shared experiences, or by referring to
the person who introduced you. You may also explain why you chose to convey this
message at this time, why the topic is important to you, what kind of expertise you have,
or how your personal experience has led you to share this message.
After the introduction comes the body of your message. Here you will present your
message in detail, using any of a variety of organizational structures. Regardless of the
type of organization you choose for your document or speech, it is important to make
your main points clear, provide support for each point, and use transitions to guide your
readers or listeners from one point to the next.
At the end of the message, your conclusion should provide the audience with a sense of
closure by summarizing your main points and relating them to the overall topic. In one
sense, it is important to focus on your organizational structure again and incorporate
the main elements into your summary, reminding the audience of what you have
covered. In another sense, it is important not to merely state your list of main points
again, but to convey a sense that you have accomplished what you stated you would do
in your introduction, allowing the audience to have psychological closure.
The residual message, a message or thought that stays with your audience well after the
communication is finished, is an important part of your message. Ask yourself of the
following:

What do I want my listeners or readers to remember?
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
What information do I want to have the audience retain or act upon?

What do I want the audience to do?
KE Y TA KEA WAY
Messages are primary, secondary, and auxiliary. A message can be divided into a fivepart structure composed of an attention statement, introduction, body, conclusion, and
residual message.
E XE RC IS ES
1. Choose three examples of communication and identify the primary message. Share and
compare with classmates.
2. Choose three examples of communication and identify the auxiliary message(s). Share
and compare with classmates.
3. Think of a time when someone said something like “please take a seat” and you correctly
or incorrectly interpreted the message as indicating that you were in trouble and about
to be reprimanded. Share and compare with classmates.
4. How does language affect self-concept? Explore and research your answer, finding
examples that can serve as case studies.
5.
Choose an article or opinion piece from a major newspaper or news Web site. Analyze
the piece according to the five-part structure described here. Does the headline serve as
a good attention statement? Does the piece conclude with a sense of closure? How are
the main points presented and supported? Share your analysis with your classmates. For
a further challenge, watch a television commercial and do the same analysis.
[1] Hasling, J. (1998). Audience, message, speaker. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
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2.3 Principles of Verbal Communication
L EA RNING O B JEC T IV E
1. Identify and describe five key principles of verbal communication.
2. Explain how the rules of syntax, semantics, and context govern language.
3. Describe how language serves to shape our experience of reality.
Verbal communication is based on several basic principles. In this section, we’ll examine
each principle and explore how it influences everyday communication. Whether it’s a
simple conversation with a coworker or a formal sales presentation to a board of
directors, these principles apply to all contexts of communication.
Language Has Rules
Language is a code, a collection of symbols, letters, or words with arbitrary meanings
that are arranged according to the rules of syntax and are used to communicate. [1]
In the first of the Note 2.1 “Introductory Exercises” for this chapter, were you able to
successfully match the terms to their meanings? Did you find that some of the
definitions did not match your understanding of the terms? The words themselves have
meaning within their specific context or language community. But without a grasp of
that context, “my bad” may have just sounded odd. Your familiarity with the words and
phrases may have made the exercise easy for you, but it isn’t an easy exercise for
everyone. The words themselves only carry meaning if you know the understood
meaning and have a grasp of their context to interpret them correctly.
There are three types of rules that govern or control our use of words. You may not be
aware that they exist or that they influence you, but from the moment you put a word
into text or speak it, these rules govern your communications. Think of a word that is all
right to use in certain situations and not in others. Why? And how do you know?
Syntactic rules govern the order of words in a sentence. In some languages, such as
German, syntax or word order is strictly prescribed. English syntax, in contrast, is
relatively flexible and open to style. Still, there are definite combinations of words that
are correct and incorrect in English. It is equally correct to say, “Please come to the
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meeting in the auditorium at twelve noon on Wednesday” or, “Please come to the
meeting on Wednesday at twelve noon in the auditorium.” But it would be incorrect to
say, “Please to the auditorium on Wednesday in the meeting at twelve noon come.”
Semantic rules govern the meaning of words and how to interpret them. [2] Semantics is
the study of meaning in language. It considers what words mean, or are intended to
mean, as opposed to their sound, spelling, grammatical function, and so on. Does a
given statement refer to other statements already communicated? Is the statement true
or false? Does it carry a certain intent? What does the sender or receiver need to know in
order to understand its meaning? These are questions addressed by semantic rules.
Contextual rules govern meaning and word choice according to context and social
custom. For example, suppose Greg is talking about his coworker, Carol, and says, “She
always meets her deadlines.” This may seem like a straightforward statement that would
not vary according to context or social custom. But suppose another coworker asked
Greg, “How do you like working with Carol?” and, after a long pause, Greg answered,
“She always meets her deadlines.” Are there factors in the context of the question or
social customs that would influence the meaning of Greg’s statement?
Even when we follow these linguistic rules, miscommunication is possible, for our
cultural context or community may hold different meanings for the words used than the
source intended. Words attempt to represent the ideas we want to communicate, but
they are sometimes limited by factors beyond our control. They often require us to
negotiate their meaning, or to explain what we mean in more than one way, in order to
create a common vocabulary. You may need to state a word, define it, and provide an
example in order to come to an understanding with your audience about the meaning of
your message.
Our Reality Is Shaped by Our Language
What would your life be like if you had been raised in a country other than the one
where you grew up? Malaysia, for example? Italy? Afghanistan? Or Bolivia? Or suppose
you had been born male instead of female, or vice versa. Or had been raised in the
northeastern United States instead of the Southwest, or the Midwest instead of the
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Southeast. In any of these cases, you would not have the same identity you have today.
You would have learned another set of customs, values, traditions, other language
patterns, and ways of communicating. You would be a different person who
communicated in different ways.
You didn’t choose your birth, customs, values, traditions, or your language. You didn’t
even choose to learn to read this sentence or to speak with those of your community, but
somehow you accomplished this challenging task. As an adult, you can choose to see
things from a new or diverse perspective, but what language do you think with? It’s not
just the words themselves, or even how they are organized, that makes communication
such a challenge. Your language itself, ever changing and growing, in many ways
determines your reality. [3] You can’t escape your language or culture completely, and
always see the world through a shade or tint of what you’ve been taught, learned, or
experienced.
Suppose you were raised in a culture that values formality. At work, you pride yourself
on being well dressed. It’s part of your expectation for yourself and, whether you admit
it or not, for others. Many people in your organization, however, come from less formal
cultures, and they prefer business casual attire. You may be able to recognize the
difference, and because humans are highly adaptable, you may get used to a less formal
dress expectation, but it won’t change your fundamental values.
Thomas Kuhn [4] makes the point that “paradigms, or a clear point of view involving
theories, laws, and/or generalizations that provide a framework for understanding, tend
to form and become set around key validity claims, or statements of the way things
work.” [5]The paradigm, or worldview, may be individual or collective. And paradigm
shifts are often painful. New ideas are always suspect, and usually opposed, without any
other reason than because they are not already common. [6]
As an example, consider the earth-heavens paradigm. Medieval Europeans believed that
the Earth was flat and that the edge was to be avoided, otherwise you might fall off. For
centuries after the acceptance of a “round earth” belief, the earth was still believed to be
the center of the universe, with the sun and all planets revolving around it. Eventually,
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someone challenged the accepted view. Over time, despite considerable resistance to
protect the status quo, people came to better understand the earth and its relationship
to the heavens.
In the same way, the makers of the Intel microprocessor once thought that a slight
calculation error, unlikely to negatively impact 99.9 percent of users, was better left as is
and hidden. [7] Like many things in the information age, the error was discovered by a
user of the product, became publicly known, and damaged Intel’s credibility and sales
for years. Recalls and prompt, public communication in response to similar issues are
now the industry-wide protocol.
Paradigms involve premises that are taken as fact. Of course the Earth is the center of
the universe, of course no one will ever be impacted by a mathematical error so far
removed from most people’s everyday use of computers, and of course you never danced
the macarena at a company party. We now can see how those facts, attitudes, beliefs,
and ideas of “cool” are overturned.
How does this insight lend itself to your understanding of verbal communication? Do all
people share the same paradigms, words, or ideas? Will you be presenting ideas outside
your audience’s frame of reference? Outside their worldview? Just as you look back at
your macarena performance, get outside your frame of reference and consider how to
best communicate your thoughts, ideas, and points to an audience that may not have
your same experiences or understanding of the topic.
By taking into account your audience’s background and experience, you can become
more “other-oriented,” a successful strategy to narrow the gap between you and your
audience. Our experiences are like sunglasses, tinting the way we see the world. Our
challenge, perhaps, is to avoid letting them function as blinders, like those worn by
working horses, which create tunnel vision and limit our perspective.
Language Is Arbitrary and Symbolic
As we have discussed previously, words, by themselves, do not have any inherent
meaning. Humans give meaning to them, and their meanings change across time. The
arbitrary symbols, including letters, numbers, and punctuation marks, stand for
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concepts in our experience. We have to negotiate the meaning of the word “home,” and
define it, through visual images or dialogue, in order to communicate with our audience.
Words have two types of meanings: denotative and connotative. Attention to both is
necessary to reduce the possibility of misinterpretation. The denotative meaning is the
common meaning, often found in the dictionary. The connotative meaning is often not
found in the dictionary but in the community of users itself. It can involve an emotional
association with a word, positive or negative, and can be individual or collective, but is
not universal.
With a common vocabulary in both denotative and connotative terms, effective
communication becomes a more distinct possibility. But what if we have to transfer
meaning from one vocabulary to another? That is essentially what we are doing when we
translate a message. In such cases, language and culture can sometimes make for
interesting twists. TheNew York Times [8] noted that the title of the 1998 film There’s
Something About Maryproved difficult to translate when it was released in foreign
markets. The movie was renamed to capture the idea and to adapt to local audiences’
frame of reference: In Poland, where blonde jokes are popular and common, the film
title (translated back to English for our use) was For the Love of a Blonde. In
France, Mary at All Costs communicated the idea, while in Thailand My True Love Will
Stand All Outrageous Events dropped the reference to Mary altogether.
Capturing our ideas with words is a challenge when both conversational partners speak
the same language, but across languages, cultures, and generations the complexity
multiplies exponentially.
Language Is Abstract
Words represent aspects of our environment, and can play an important role in that
environment. They may describe an important idea or concept, but the very act of
labeling and invoking a word simplifies and distorts our concept of the thing itself. This
ability to simplify concepts makes it easier to communicate, but it sometimes makes us
lose track of the specific meaning we are trying to convey through abstraction. Let’s look
at one important part of life in America: transportation.
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Take the word “car” and consider what it represents. Freedom, status, or style? Does
what you drive say something about you? To describe a car as a form of transportation is
to consider one of its most basic and universal aspects. This level of abstraction means
we lose individual distinctions between cars until we impose another level of labeling.
We could divide cars into sedans (or saloon) and coupe (or coupé) simply by counting
the number of doors (i.e., four versus two). We could also examine cost, size, engine
displacement, fuel economy, and style. We might arrive at an American classic, the
Mustang, and consider it for all these factors and its legacy as an accessible American
sports car. To describe it in terms of transportation only is to lose the distinctiveness of
what makes a Mustang a desirable American sports car.
Figure 2.2Abstraction Ladder
Source: Adapted from J. DeVito’s Abstraction Ladder. [9]
We can see how, at the extreme level of abstraction, a car is like any other automobile.
We can also see how, at the base level, the concept is most concrete. “Mustang,” the
name given to one of the best-selling American sports cars, is a specific make and model
with specific markings; a specific size, shape, and range of available colors; and a
relationship with a classic design. By focusing on concrete terms and examples, you help
your audience grasp your content.
Language Organizes and Classifies Reality
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We use language to create and express some sense of order…