COMM 201 Bryant and Stratton College Wk 2 Rhetoric and Communication Questions

PART A

In the lecture, we explored the importance of listening in a public speaking classroom, but also in any workplace communication. With so much interference going on around us, it is easy to become distracted by our surroundings or lose interest in what it is we are supposed to be listening to. Since people are all different, what it means to listen intently isn’t the same for everyone or in all situations. Reflect on a situation in which your role was to listen to a speaker. In your initial post, address the following:

Discuss some of the barriers that got in the way of you fully committing to the listening process.

Describe the nonverbal indicators you sent back to the speaker to indicate you were listening.

PART B

You will apply what you learned about the communication process and the communication cycle to produce a minimum 750-word essay focused on ways to improve the communication cycle in the workplace, in school, and at home.

Choose a Topic

Reflect on a misunderstanding you experienced during a communication in your place of work, in school, or at home.Use the chart below to organize your thoughts on that communication before you begin writing your essay.

Response

Who was the sender?

Who was the receiver?

What channel was used to send the message?(phone, email, text, face to face, virtual

meeting, etc.)

What was the message (verbal,  nonverbal, or both)?

What was the feedback (verbal,  non-verbal, or both) sent back?

What was the misunderstanding that occurred?

What role did interference (internal and    external) play in this communication?

Lecture 2 – Rhetoric and Communication
COMM201
Lesson #1 – Rhetoric
Introduction
Communication theory and communication models play a significant role in persuasive
speaking. An awareness of rhetorical theories behind persuasive speaking will allow
you to develop your ability to communicate persuasively in any type of conversation or
presentation.
Rhetoric, at its most basic, is the art of persuasion. Human communication is rhetorical
in its presentation. Persuasion is a technique we use on a daily basis—we persuade our
children to clean their rooms, we (attempt) to persuade our instructors to give us a few
more days on an assignment, and we persuade our supervisors to grant us a raise.
Often, we don’t even know we are doing it. Rhetoric focuses on making choices in how
information is delivered and what information is used to persuade.
Aristotle’s Rhetorical Theory
Aristotle’s rhetorical theory is a linear model of communication. Based on this linear
model, the speaker has the most important role in communication. The speaker must
have a strong understanding of the audience and the purpose of the presentation to be
successful. Still, the audience has little to no role in the communication process. This
method doesn’t take into consideration feedback or interference—it is strictly focused
on message delivery.
The Rhetorical Triangle was identified by Aristotle (384 bc-322bc), the ancient Greek
scientist, philosopher, and thinker, to indicate the most effective way to persuade an
audience. Aristotle believed that there are three types of persuasive techniques, and
together they can build the strongest argument (“Aristotle’s Rhetorical Situation,”2020).
Ethos
Pathos
Logos
Character/Image: The
writer’s expertise and
goodwill.
Emotion: Moving the reader
emotionally—anger, pity,
fear, etc.
Logic: Facts and proof that
support your persuasive
point.
COMM201 – Lecture 2
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“File: Rhetorical Triangle.png” by ChloeGui is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0
Watch the following 4 minute and 29-second video by Camille A. Langston entitled
“How to Use Rhetoric to Get What You Want “(TedEd). As you watch the video, please
consider the following:
• What types of presentations or public speaking does Aristotle’s Rhetorical
Theory play a role in?
• How important is the communication cycle, including the receiver and the
message, in deliberative rhetoric?
Click the following link to watch:
• “How to Use Rhetoric to Get What You Want”
This video provides an excellent explanation of Aristotle’s Rhetorical Theory and the
role of Aristotle’s appeals in all presentations. Some of the main takeaways from the
video are:
• Aristotle’s rhetorical theory applies to judicial speeches (crime scenes, court
cases), demonstrative speeches (weddings, funerals), and deliberative rhetoric
(political speeches, activist pleas).
• Aristotle’s deliberative rhetorical theory is the language of political speeches.
There is limited opportunity to adapt to interference, and the audience is too
large for feedback. Instead, the focus is on delivering an inspiring speech with
loaded and impactful words to get what the politician wants or needs.
Aristotle’s Rhetorical Theory may be the best-known theory because it is often used as a
model for persuasive writing in addition to public speaking. This theory has been
adapted many times as society’s use of rhetoric and speech has adapted to the time.
Burke’s Identification Theory
Our understanding of communication theory has adapted, so too has our view of the
role of rhetoric in communication. More recently, Burke has expanded upon Aristotle’s
concept of rhetoric to include Identification. This is strongly connected to the
communication models and considers that communication is not always performed in a
linear model.
All of us have read a book or watched a movie and identified and connected with one of
the characters or roles. That connection is the focus of Burke’s theory. Burke explained
Identification as the many ways a speaker can establish a shared connection with the
audience through shared values, attitudes, and interests. A speaker’s ability to develop
a connection with an audience can only increase the ability to persuade an audience.
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Depending on the audience, that identification can be established for you. For example,
in the image below, the speaker, Maj. Derek Wastila, is speaking to a group who
already identify with him and his military role.
What happens if the speaker changes?
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
COMM201 – Lecture 2
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As a speaker to a large group of military members, the speaker in the image above
would more than likely need to find a way to connect with his audience through shared
values, attitudes, and interests. He doesn’t have the military connection to create that
connection for him. He has a much larger task to complete if he is going to connect
with his audience.
This concept of identification is very much focused on analyzing an audience; the more
a speaker understands the audience, the more likely the audience will be engaged in the
communication process. It also strengthens Aristotle’s concept of ethos for the speaker.
Burke’s theory focused on overcoming the differences between a speaker and an
audience by identify what makes them the same or finding common ground. If we can
establish that connection, then that deeper conversation can happen, and that
connection can be made. This requires a very close study of the audience. The more
connected the audience is with the speaker, the more likely the speaker will be able to
use pathos to make an emotional appeal to the audience.
This idea of identification plays a significant role in our current media. To make an
advertisement campaign successful, an audience has to be targeted with the ultimate
goal to convince that audience that what they are advertising is the answer to all their
problems. When a 30-second commercial can create that identification that quickly, that
product will sell quickly.
Lesson #1 Completed!
Thank you! You have completed this lesson. Please scroll down to complete a short,
ungraded Knowledge Check activity.
Check Your Knowledge #1
True or False
1. Aristotle’s Rhetorical Theory considers the feedback provided by the audience.
False
2. According to Burke, the better a speaker understands the audience, the more
likely the audience will be engaged in the communication. True
3. Burke’s Identification Theory builds from Aristotle’s theory of creating ethos or a
connection with the audience. True
Lesson #2 – Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication
Verbal communication is passing information in words between the sender and
receiver. This can be done in writing and through speech.
Spoken vs. Written Communication
Making the decision to communicate in writing instead of speaking depends on several
different aspects, and often there are pros and cons to each choice. As a college student,
COMM201 – Lecture 2
when you are struggling in a class, what is the best way to communicate your concerns
with your instructor: do you choose an in-person or virtual meeting, or do you send an
email expressing your concerns in writing? What are the pros and cons of these
choices?
There are a number of factors you can take into consideration when making this
decision:
Formality: Written communication tends to be more formal than verbal
communication. It is essential to keep in mind grammar and mechanics, sentence
structure, and paragraphs in written form. These play less of a role in spoken
communication.
Timing: Spoken communication requires a specific time when it can be delivered;
however, written communication can be delivered by email, text, etc. It does not
require an immediate response if the person isn’t available.
Paper trail: Written communication does create a significant paper trail, which can
provide documentation especially dealing with work-related concerns.
While written communication can be powerful and impactful, spoken communication
offers the opportunity to deliver a powerful message and use the communication cycle
to adapt the communication based on feedback and the audience’s need. Questions can
be answered; confusion can be cleared up immediately.
As Burke’s identification theory outlines, Spoken communication is an opportunity to
build a relationship with the audience in a very personal and, often, powerful way.
Nonverbal Communication
It is imperative to keep what you are saying, nonverbally, in mind throughout the
communication as a speaker. You can have a powerfully written message that can get
easily lost within the nonverbals you are sending during a formal presentation, in a
small group, or in a one-on-one conversation.
Facial Expressions: Your face reveals how you are feeling in more ways than you
might think. You may feel nervous inside if you are speaking, but your expression
should not share that nervousness with the receiver. This is true in any form of
communication, from one on one to a large group.
Hand Movements: Simple gestures can change the way your receiver interprets the
message. Point to the specific information you want them to concentrate on,
indicate concern or anger with your arm movements, open your arms to take in the
room. Use these movements to make your words more powerful (but don’t
overwhelm!).
Eye contact: This is a big one, but it can also be a difficult one. Looking the person
you are speaking to in the eye while you are speaking builds that connection with
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them. You become more trustworthy and connected no matter the size of your
audience.
Closeness: While presenting in a small space, your ability to control where you are
in relation to who you are speaking to may be out of your control, especially if you
need access to technology, but one on one, how you position yourself can definitely
impact your audience. Stand too close, and you may make your audience
uncomfortable, or worse yet, frightened; stand too far away, and it may make you
appear disconnected or disinterested.
The nonverbal ways you communicate with people around you reveal a great deal
about who you are and your intentions. It can make the difference in getting your
message across regardless of the number of people you are speaking to.
Lesson #2 Completed!
Thank you! You have completed this lesson. Please scroll down to complete a short,
ungraded Knowledge Check activity.
Check Your Knowledge #2
True or False
1. Positioning yourself too close to your audience or the person you are speaking to
can nonverbally communicate that you are threatening. True
2. Eye contact is less important when there is an audience since there is no one
specifically to look at. False
3. One of the benefits of spoken communication is that it allows the speaker to
adapt and change based on how the audience receives the message. True
Lesson #3 – The Audience’s Role
Portions of this lesson were extracted from:
Schreiber,L., & Hartranft, M. (2011). Introduction to public speaking. In The Public
Speaking Projects, Public speaking: The virtual text.
http://publicspeakingproject.org/introduction.html
This course has focused on delivering a message successfully, and the theory behind
that message delivery, but the receiver or the audience plays a vital role in that
communication. In that position, there are expectations for the receiver during the
communication process. There is nothing more frustrating when speaking publicly
than being aware that a listener is not actively involved in the communication process.
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Be Kind and Pay Attention
In a public speaking class, your role in the class is to encourage and support your
classmates, but this is also true in other situations. In the workplace, as in the
classroom, it is distracting to a speaker with any size audience to attempt to make eye
contact with someone scrolling through their social media or someone with their head
down on the conference table. Paying attention and respecting others is part of the role
you play in strong communication
Imagine being involved in a communication about a significant policy change with your
supervisor, but rather than listening to your supervisor, you are scrolling through your
phonea. This would definitely have a negative impact on your employment status.
That doesn’t change as the number of people involved in the communication grows.
In a small group or a large room, assume the speaker will see you. That means the
feedback you are sending back to the speaker should indicate you are attentive to their
communication—make eye contact, put your phone away, and show your support in
your facial expressions.
Keep an Open Mind
Even if you know going into a conversation that you disagree with what you are going
to hear or you are already upset about it, it is your task during that communication to
be cognizant of the communication taking place. Put aside any other prejudgments or
other concerns and listen attentively to the message being communicated. The speaker
may not change your mind, but it may broaden your view of the topic.
This, of course, circles back to an awareness of the non-verbal communication you are
sending back to the speaker. If you have closed your mind to the information in the
communication, it will be evident in your facial expressions and body language. The
speaker will know they have not reached you before they even begin to speak.
Jumping to conclusions about the speaker is another barrier to effective listening.
Perhaps you’ve been in the audience when a speaker makes a small mistake; maybe it’s
mispronouncing a word or misstating the hometown of your favorite athlete. An
effective listener will overlook this minor gaffe and continue to give the speaker the
benefit of the doubt. A listener looking for an excuse not to give their full attention to
the speaker will instead take this momentary lapse as proof of flaws in all the person
has said and will go on to say.
This same listener might also judge the speaker based on superficialities. Focusing on
delivery or personal appearance—a squeaky voice, a ketchup stain on a white shirt,
mismatched socks, a bad haircut, or a proclaimed love for a band that no one of any
worth could ever profess to like—might help the ineffective listener justify a choice to
stop listening. Still, this is always a choice. The effective listener will instead accept that
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people may have their own individual foibles, but they can still be good speakers and
valuable sources of insight or information.
Listen
A mother takes her four-year-old to the pediatrician reporting she’s worried about the
girl’s hearing. The doctor runs through a battery of tests, checks in the girl’s ears to be
sure everything looks good, and makes notes in the child’s folder. Then, she takes the
mother by the arm. They move together to the far end of the room, behind the girl. The
doctor whispers in a low voice to the concerned parent: “Everything looks fine. But,
she’s been through a lot of tests today. You might want to take her for ice cream after
this as a reward.” The daughter jerks her head around, a huge grin on her face, “Oh,
please, Mommy! I love ice cream!” The doctor, speaking now at a regular volume,
reports, “As I said, I don’t think there’s any problem with her hearing, but she may not
always be choosing to listen.”
While listening sounds like an essential skill everyone has, to listen well takes some
initiative. Many things can get in the way of your ability to listen to a speaker.
• Concentrating on remembering ALL of the specific details you are being told,
• letting your thoughts wander away from what is being said,
• even becoming distracted with the nonverbal communication from the
speaker can get in the way of listening.
Think of the number of distractions around you on a regularly basis and how often we
“multitask” when doing something—listening to music while studying, watching the
news while reading the class lecture. To listen closely, it is vital to give all of your
attention to what you are listening to—focus on the speaker and the message. Nothing
else.
In any setting where you are expected to listen, you encounter numerous distractions.
For instance, the father sitting in the living room watching television, might want to
turn off the television to better enable him to listen to his son when he comes into the
room saying, “Dad, I have a problem.” In the classroom setting, you might be distracted
sitting beside friends who make sarcastic comments throughout the class. In a new
product meeting with the sales team, you could be unnerved by the constant beep of
your phone identifying another text, email, or phone message has arrived. Identifying
the things that will interrupt your attention and making a conscious choice to move to a
different seat or turn off your phone, can help position you to listen more effectively.
Taking notes can also advance your ability to be actively engaged in the speaker’s
words. You need not write down everything the speaker is saying. First, this is quite
likely to be impossible. Second, once you are caught up in recording a speaker’s every
word, you are no longer listening. You want to focus your efforts on really listening
with an active mind. Learning to focus your attention on main points, key concepts, and
COMM201 – Lecture 2
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gaining the overall gist of the speaker’s talk is another skill to develop. You might
endeavor to do this by jotting down a few notes or even drawing visuals that help you
to recall the main ideas. The manner in which you take the notes is up to you; what is
important is the fact that you are listening and working to process what is being said.
Writing down questions that come to mind and asking questions of the speaker when it
is possible, are two more ways to guarantee effective listening as you have found an
internal motivation to listen attentively.
Provide Positive Feedback to the Speaker
There are many ways in which a listener can offer feedback to a speaker, sometimes
even wordlessly. Keeping an open mind is something you do internally, but you can
also demonstrate openness to a speaker through your nonverbal communication.
Listen with your whole body, not just your ears. Consider how confident you would
feel speaking to a room full of people with their eyes closed, arms and legs crossed, and
bodies bent in slouches. These listeners are presenting nonverbal cues that they are
uninterested and unimpressed. Meanwhile, a listener sitting up straight, facing you
with an intent look on his face is more likely to offer reassurance that your words are
being understood.
Eye contact is another nonverbal cue to the speaker that you are paying attention. You
don’t want to be bug-eyed and unblinking; the speaker might assume there is a tiger
behind her and begin to panic as you seem to be doing. However, attentive eye contact
can indicate you are listening, and help you to stay focused too. There are some cultures
where maintaining eye contact would cause discomfort, so keep that in mind. Also, you
may be someone who listens better with eyes closed to visualize what is being said. This
can be difficult for a speaker to recognize, so if this is you consider incorporating one of
the following nonverbals while you listen with eyes closed.
Nodding your head affirmatively, making back-channel responses such as “Yes,”
“Umhum,” or “OK” can help the speaker gauge your interest. Even the speed of your
head nod can signal your level of patience or understanding. Leaning in as a listener is
far more encouraging than slumping in your seat. Nevertheless, sending too many
nonverbal responses to the speaker can go wrong too. After all, a conference room full
of people shifting in their seats and nodding their heads may translate as a restless
audience that the speaker needs to recapture.
While speakers sometimes want all questions held until the end of a presentation,
asking questions when the opportunity presents itself can help you as a listener. For
one, you have to listen in order to be able to ask a question. Your goal should be to ask
open-ended questions (“What do you think about….?” rather than “We should do ….,
right?”). You can use questions to confirm your understanding of the speaker’s
message. If you’re not entirely sure of a significant point, you might ask a clarifying
COMM201 – Lecture 2
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question. These are questions such as “What did you mean?” “Can you be more
specific?” or “What is a concrete example of your point?” These can help your
comprehension, while also offering the speaker feedback. When asking questions,
approach the speaker in a positive, non-threatening way. A good listener doesn’t seek
to put the speaker on the defensive. You want to demonstrate your objectivity and
willingness to listen to the speaker’s response.
Finally, paraphrasing what has been said in your interactions with the speaker can be
another useful tool for a good listener. Imagine the difference if, before you respond to
an upset colleague, you take a moment to say, “I understand you are disappointed we
didn’t consult you before moving forward with the product release…” before you say,
“we didn’t have time to get everyone’s input.” Reflecting back the speaker’s point of
view before you respond allows the speaker to know you were listening and helps
foster trust that everyone’s voice is being heard.
Lesson #3 Completed!
Thank you! You have completed this lesson. Please scroll down to complete a short,
ungraded Knowledge Check activity.
Check Your Knowledge #3
True or False:
1. It is unlikely the speaker will notice if you are scrolling through your social
media in a large conference room. False
2. When you do not agree with the speaker’s topic or position, it is acceptable not to
listen to what is being said. False
3. When you find your mind wandering from a speaker, one way to bring it back to
the topic is to try to pick out the main idea’s the speaker is focused on. True
Lesson #4 – Mediums
Different mediums for delivery of communication can impact verbal and nonverbal
communication, and as the presenter, those mediums need to be taken into
consideration before presenting. As our ability to communicate virtually has expanded,
the likelihood of speaking virtually through an online software program (Zoom,
Microsoft Teams, WebEx, Google Meets, etc.) has increased dramatically. As a
presenter, you will need to be prepared to adjust your delivery to the medium, and that
even includes your nonverbal communication.
Online vs. Face to Face
The virtual environment is quite different from conversing or presenting to an audience
in a face-to-face environment. Some of your audience may not be using their cameras,
so they will just be dark images on the screen. Others may be struggling with their
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ability to listen actively and will be distracted by their phone or anything going on
around them.
This limited connection with the audience limits your ability to receive feedback during
your presentation and can increase the distractions you will need to overcome.
The Technology
Perhaps the most essential step in preparing for a virtual presentation is knowing the
technology, which means practicing multiple times before presenting. Make sure you
are using the same computer and internet connection you will use when you present.
This will allow you to avoid any navigation or internet connectivity issues. If possible,
plug your computer directly into your modem using an ethernet cable for a stronger
connection. Practicing with nearly identical technologies will ensure a more
professional presentation.
Even as you begin to plan your presentation, you need to know how that technology
works and what it allows you to do. Some online software allows you to share your
audio but limits the ability to share videos or recordings. Others provide the
opportunity to upload a shared file that allows for a more interactive and collaborative
presentation. You may also find that there are various ways your audience can interact
with you (speaking, chatting, hand raising, etc.).
The Visual Environment
There is no avoiding it: you will need to be prepared to turn your camera on as the
presenter. That means you will need to put some thought into what your audience is
going to see.
Because the ability to make eye contact is limited, you will need to know where your
camera is on your computer. Instead of looking at your computer monitor, which is a
natural inclination, look at the light indicating your camera is on. That is the most
effective way to simulate eye contact with your audience.
Because you are going to be looking at the camera, it is important to position it at eye
level. If it is too low and you are looking down at it, you risk creating a double chin. If
it is too high, you will struggle to make the eye contact you need. Your goal is to fill
most of the frame but allow the audience to see you from the chest up. This may
require finding a way to elevate your computer safely and securely to the appropriate
height by stacking boxes or books.
That is not all, though! Once you have your camera at the right height, you need to
frame your face so that you are not too far away from the camera (disconnected from
the audience) and not too close (a giant head floating in the screen). If you are sitting in
front of your computer, be sure to lean forward as a news anchor would on television,
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rather than slouching away from the camera. If possible, you may even find that
standing up gives you a much stronger physical presence and increases your energy
level—but it will require many more boxes or books!
Lighting and background also play a role in how you appear to your audience. Good
front lighting would allow the light to shine brightly on your face. Natural light is the
best choice, but a carefully directed light will work too. If there is a window or direct
light behind you, close the curtains to block that light. Your background (whatever can
be seen behind you in the camera) should enhance your message. You should carefully
stage that space to do this. Get rid of clutter, piles of laundry or dishes, anything that
can be distracting.
Nonverbal Communication Still Counts
While it may seem that nonverbal communication will play a lesser role in a virtual
environment, this isn’t always true. Think about the visual of you on the computer
screen. The ability to see your face so closely actually amplifies the impact of your
facial movements and gestures. These need to be considered so that they do not distract
from the impact of your message.
Gestures and hand movements need to be carefully planned so that you do not appear
nervous and so they are not moving in front of the camera and distracting from the
camera view. Rather than moving your eyes from place to place in an attempt to
maintain eye contact with everyone on the screen, maintain that eye contact with the
camera to avoid sudden or darting eye movements.
It is always best to be prepared in any technology-dependent environment: anticipate
that anything that can go wrong will go wrong. That means you need to have a backup
plan in place. While an audience may be sympathetic to technology issues, you still
need to move forward with your presentation.
Lesson #4 Completed!
Thank you! You have completed this lesson. Please scroll down to complete a short,
ungraded Knowledge Check activity.
Check Your Knowledge #4
Multiple Choice
1. How should a presenter maintain eye contact during a virtual presentation?
a. It is important to look directly at the screen when presenting.
b. It is important to drag your eyes around the screen to simulate a large room.
c. It is essential to adjust the camera so that it is at eye level and look only at
that.
d. Eye contact is not important in a virtual presentation.
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2. What background changes should a presenter make before delivering a virtual
presentation?
a. Remove any dirty dishes, children’s toys, or dirty laundry.
b. Close any curtains that bring natural light in from behind your seat.
c. Adjust the lighting so that it is coming from in front of you.
d. All of the above
3. What should a presenter considering use to ensure a strong internet connection
during a virtual presentation?
a. A cell phone
b. Internet access from the local coffee shop
c. An ethernet cable connected to the model
d. None of the above
Lecture Recap
The communication process requires both sender and receiver to focus on many
different aspects, verbally and nonverbally, to ensure that the transfer of a message is
successful. Add to that communication differences in presentation method and outside
influences, and the speaker needs to be prepared for many challenges.
As we move forward, you will apply what you have learned about the communication
cycle to explore delivery methods and public speaking types.
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References
Aristotle’s Rhetorical Situation. (2020). Purdue Online Writing Lab.
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/academic_writing/rhetorical_sit
uation/aristotles_rhetorical_situation.html
Borsellino, R. (2021). 20 Video interview tips to help you dazzle the hiring manager and get the
job. The Muse. https://www.themuse.com/advice/video-interview-tips
Goddu, J. Q. (2011). Listening effectively. In The Public Speaking Projects, Public
speaking: The Virtual Text.
http://publicspeakingproject.org/PDF%20Files/listening%20web%201.pdf
Lumen Learning. (n.d.). Learning to listen and helping others do the same. Boundless
Communication. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundlesscommunications/chapter/understanding-listening/
Quigley, B. L. (n.d.). “Identification” as a key term in Kenneth Burke’s rhetorical theory.
American Communication Journal. http://acjournal.org/journal/vol1/iss3/burke/quigley.html