complete the previous task

Hello, it is a pleasure to communicate with you again. I would like to complete the previous task.

Based on my teacher’s feedback

The introduction must be longer than that, with more references (the number of references should not be less than 10 per page). (Total references no less than 40 references) Each page must have (subtitle) Linking the topic to the report (To Err Is Human) issued in 1999 & 2003 Institute of Medicine (IOM) In literature reviews, the topic should linked to the Saudi health systemAn additional question:

What method or program is used to write references?

* Previous work in the attached file

Medication Errors in Secondary Hospitals
Background:
Medication errors in secondary hospitals are considered a substantial concern in health care
because they jeopardize patient safety and well-being. The errors can manifest in different
forms and stages across the medication management process, including prescription,
administration, and dispensing of medication. This study was conducted to evaluate the types
and causes of medication errors.
Introduction
Medication errors in secondary hospitals are considered a substantial concern in health
care because they jeopardize patient safety and well-being. The errors can manifest in different
forms and stages across the medication management process, including prescription,
administration, and dispensing of medication. The repercussion of medication errors ranges from
mild discomfort to life-threatening alternatives, emphasizing the critical need for having
comprehensive knowledge, prevention, and intervention (Alsulami, Conroy, & Choonara, 2013).
This literature review highlights medication errors encountered in secondary hospitals, their
frequency, and related contributing factors. By evaluating the factors that lead to these errors and
understanding their prevalence, healthcare experts and institutions can effectively implement
strategies that will help to minimize the occurrence of medication errors and enhance patient
care.
Literature Review
According to Ghaleb et al. (2016), medication errors in secondary hospitals represent a
constant challenge in the healthcare framework. The institutions often serve as an intermediary
between primary care facilities and tertiary hospitals, responsible for handling several medical
cases, making them susceptible to diverse medication errors. The complexity of patient
conditions and the need for proper treatments intensify the risk of medication errors in such
environments (Lisby, Nielsen, Brock, & Mainz, 2010). Secondary hospitals offer care for patients
having a wide array of medical conditions requiring multiple medications, each with specific
dosing requirements, drug interactions, and administration routes.
2
Medication errors in secondary hospitals are never limited to specific stages of
medication management processes; They can always take place during prescription,
administration, transcription, or even during dispensing. Different individuals across different
settings will always feel the repercussions of these areas. In addition, secondary hospitals are
important frameworks because they are responsible for kick-starting such problems and should
always implement the most effective approaches.
According to Dürr et al. (2021), these medication errors are always diverse, with
contributing factors starting from different sources. For example, communication breakdown
between healthcare providers, inadequate training, workload pressures, and handwritten
prescriptions contribute massively to medication errors (Aronson, 2009). In addition, the
involvement of different healthcare professionals, such as physicians, nurses, pharmacists, and
pharmacy technicians, across the medication management process increases the possibility of
errors during the transition to suitable care.
According to Dimitriu et al. (2020), medication errors in secondary hospitals can be
related to a lack of standardization in the medication management practices. Key variations in
medication dosing units, drug concentrations, and labeling conventions establish confusion and
increase the likelihood of medication errors (Moyen, Camiré, & Stelfox, 2018; Wittich, Burkle,
& Lanier, 2014). In addition, issues related to medication availability unstuck outs also lead to
two substitutions of medications, which may not be equivalent, resulting in dosing errors or
inappropriate drug alternatives.
In order to effectively address the problem of medication errors across secondary
hospitals, it is important to have a substantial knowledge of the types, frequency, and contributing
factors related to the errors (Daliri et al., 2019). The knowledge is very important for the
development and implementation of key targeted approaches that aim to improve patient safety,
improve the quality of healthcare administered, and mitigate the potential harm that is caused by
medication errors in these critical healthcare environments.
Manias, Kusljic, & Wu, (2020) state that to further highlight the importance of medication
areas across secondary hospitals, it is important to know the cumulative effect of the errors on
patient outcomes and healthcare costs. Medication errors lead to prolonged hospital stays,
increased resource utilization, and the need to have additional medical interventions, all of which
strain the healthcare system and result in healthcare expenditures increasing. In addition, the
psychological and emotional increase in patients and healthcare providers cannot be
underestimated (Menon et al., 2020). We experience medication errors and lose trust in the
healthcare system, and healthcare professionals suffer and fail to able to address medication
3
errors; healthcare professionals suffer from emotional distress and moral injury when such arrests
take place. Therefore, being able to address medication errors in secondary hospitals has not only
clinical repercussions but also financial and psychological influence on both patients and
healthcare workers.
According to Elliott et al. (2021), secondary hospitals often act as crucial hubs for
disseminating medical knowledge and providing healthcare services to the local community.
They play a pivotal role in medical education and training, ensuring a continuous pipeline of
skilled healthcare professionals (Alqenae et al., 2020). Medication errors in these settings can
have a detrimental effect on the education and development of the next generation of healthcare
providers. According to Escrivá Gracia et al. (2019), students, residents, and interns frequently
rotate through secondary hospitals, and their exposure to medication errors can shape their
understanding of patient safety and the importance of robust medication management practices.
Therefore, minimizing medication errors in secondary hospitals is essential not only for the wellbeing of current patients but also for the future of healthcare by instilling a culture of safety and
excellence among emerging healthcare professionals.
Types of Medication Errors
Prescription Errors
Prescription errors are among the most common types of medication errors in secondary
hospitals, accounting for a significant proportion of incidents (Ridley et al., 2019). These errors
occur during the initial stage of medication management when a healthcare provider prescribes
a medication. The following subtypes are identified within this category:
Drug Dose Errors
These errors related to drug dosage and are frequently in prescription. They include
prescribing and dosage which is either too high or too low for the patient’s condition, age, weight
or renal function (Miasso et al., 2019). Such errors lead to inadequate therapeutic effects or
adverse reactions depending on whether they prescribe dosage is higher or lower than what is
required.
Wrong Frequency Prescribed
Frequency errors involve prescribing medications for administration at an incorrect
frequency. This can result in patients receiving doses too frequently or infrequently, affecting the
drug’s effectiveness and the patient’s overall health.
4
Wrong Route Prescribed
Prescribing medications via the incorrect route, such as oral instead of intravenous or vice
versa, is another common error in this category (Mohan, Sharma, & Panwar, 2014). Wrong route
errors can lead to suboptimal drug absorption or, in severe cases, immediate harm.
Others
Other prescription errors can encompass a variety of mistakes, such as missing essential
information on the prescription, failing to specify the duration of treatment, or providing
incomplete instructions (Korb-Savoldelli et al., 2018). While individually less frequent,
collectively, these errors contribute significantly to the overall incidence of prescription errors.
Wrong Drug
Prescribing the wrong medication altogether is a rare but potentially catastrophic error
(Shrestha, & Prajapati, 2019). Administering a medication that is not indicated for the patient’s
condition can result in severe adverse effects or therapeutic failure.
Administration Errors
Administration errors occur when the healthcare provider responsible for delivering the
medication deviates from the prescribed order (Keers et al., 2013). These errors are responsible
for a substantial number of medication-related incidents in secondary hospitals, and the following
subtypes are identified:
Wrong Infusion Rate
Administering intravenous medications at an incorrect rate, either too fast or too slow,
can lead to serious adverse reactions or reduced treatment efficacy (McBride-Henry, & Foureur,
2016). Administering medications at the wrong rate is a frequent administration error in
secondary hospitals.
Others
According to Calabrese et al. (2011), other administration errors encompass a wide range
of mistakes, including the wrong patient, wrong time, or incorrect technique. These errors can
result from distractions, fatigue, or inadequate training and contribute to the high incidence of
medication errors during administration.
Transcription Errors
5
Transcription errors occur when the prescription is transferred from the written order to
the medication administration record (Blignaut et al., 2017). Although less common than
prescription and administration errors, transcription errors can have significant consequences,
particularly when not identified in time. The following subtypes are identified within this
category:
Wrong Dose
Transcription errors involving incorrect dosages are a frequent occurrence. These errors
may result from illegible handwriting, misinterpretation, or typographical mistakes when
transferring information (Shawahna, Abbas, & Ghanem, 2019).
Wrong Time
Mistakes related to the timing of medication administration can lead to suboptimal
therapeutic effects or adverse reactions. Patients may receive medications too early or too late
based on transcription errors.
Others
Transcription errors may also involve missing or incorrectly recording essential details,
such as patient identification or the medication route, leading to potential complications or
ineffective treatment (Fahimi et al., 2019).
Dispensing Errors
Dispensing errors occur in the pharmacy when the pharmacist or pharmacy technician
prepares the medication for administration (Shawahna et al., 2013). Though less frequent than
prescription and administration errors, they are still a source of concern in secondary hospitals.
The following subtypes are identified:
Wrong Frequency
Dispensing errors involving the wrong frequency refer to providing patients with a
medication that is intended to be taken more or less frequently than prescribed (Szeinbach et al.,
2017). Such errors can result in treatment inefficacy or adverse effects.
Wrong Dose
Errors related to the wrong dosage at the dispensing stage can result from miscalculation
or oversight and may lead to suboptimal therapeutic outcomes or adverse reactions in patients.
6
In summary, medication areas is considered to be secondary hospitals’ encompassed a
range of types, having its frequency and unique characteristics (Franklin, & O’grady, 2017). The
knowledge of various types of errors and their prevalence is very important for the development
of targeted strategies that will help to minimise their happening and improve patient safety. By
evaluating the contributing factors and the potential interventions for every type of error,
healthcare providers and institutions can be in a position to work together to improve medication
safety and ultimately the quality of patient care.
References
1. Alqenae, F. A., Steinke, D., & Keers, R. N. (2020). Prevalence and nature of medication
errors and medication-related harm following discharge from hospital to community
settings: a systematic review. Drug safety, 43, 517-537.
2. Alsulami, Z., Conroy, S., & Choonara, I. (2013). Medication errors in the Middle East
countries: a systematic review of the literature. European journal of clinical
pharmacology, 69, 995-1008.
3. Aronson, J. K. (2009). Medication errors: what they are, how they happen, and how to
avoid them. QJM: An International Journal of Medicine, 102(8), 513-521.
4. Daliri, S., Hugtenburg, J. G., Ter Riet, G., van den Bemt, B. J., Buurman, B. M., Scholte
op Reimer, W. J., … & Karapinar-Çarkit, F. (2019). The effect of a pharmacy-led
transitional care program on medication-related problems post-discharge: A before—
After prospective study. PloS one, 14(3), e0213593.
5. Dimitriu, M. C., Pantea-Stoian, A., Smaranda, A. C., Nica, A. A., Carap, A. C.,
Constantin, V. D., … & Socea, B. (2020). Burnout syndrome in Romanian medical
residents in time of the COVID-19 pandemic. Medical hypotheses, 144, 109972.
6. Dürr, P., Schlichtig, K., Kelz, C., Deutsch, B., Maas, R., Eckart, M. J., … & Fromm, M.
F. (2021). The randomized AMBORA trial: Impact of pharmacological/pharmaceutical
care on medication safety and patient-reported outcomes during treatment with new oral
anticancer agents. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 39(18), 1983-1994.
7
7. Elliott, R. A., Camacho, E., Jankovic, D., Sculpher, M. J., & Faria, R. (2021). Economic
analysis of the prevalence and clinical and economic burden of medication error in
England. BMJ Quality & Safety, 30(2), 96-105.
8. Escrivá Gracia, J., Brage Serrano, R., & Fernández Garrido, J. (2019). Medication errors
and drug knowledge gaps among critical-care nurses: a mixed multi-method study. BMC
health services research, 19(1), 1-9.
9. Ghaleb, M. A., Barber, N., Franklin, B. D., Yeung, V. W., Khaki, Z. F., & Wong, I. C.
(2016). Systematic review of medication errors in pediatric patients. Annals of
Pharmacotherapy, 40(10), 1766-1776.
10. Lisby, M., Nielsen, L. P., Brock, B., & Mainz, J. (2010). How are medication errors
defined? A systematic literature review of definitions and characteristics. International
Journal for Quality in Health Care, 22(6), 507-518.
11. Manias, E., Kusljic, S., & Wu, A. (2020). Interventions to reduce medication errors in
adult medical and surgical settings: a systematic review. Therapeutic advances in drug
safety, 11, 2042098620968309.
12. Menon, N. K., Shanafelt, T. D., Sinsky, C. A., Linzer, M., Carlasare, L., Brady, K. J., …
& Trockel, M. T. (2020). Association of physician burnout with suicidal ideation and
medical errors. JAMA network open, 3(12), e2028780-e2028780.
13. Moyen, E., Camiré, E., & Stelfox, H. T. (2018). Clinical review: medication errors in
critical care. Critical care, 12(2), 1-7.
14. Ridley, S. A., Booth, S. A., Thompson, C. M., & Intensive Care Society’s Working Group
on
Adverse
Incidents.
(2014).
Prescription
errors
in
UK
critical
care
units. Anaesthesia, 59(12), 1193-1200.
15. Wittich, C. M., Burkle, C. M., & Lanier, W. L. (2014, August). Medication errors: an
overview for clinicians. In Mayo Clinic Proceedings (Vol. 89, No. 8, pp. 1116-1125).
Elsevier.
16. Miasso, A. I., Oliveira, R. C. D., Silva, A. E. B. D. C., Lyra Junior, D. P. D., Gimenes, F.
R. E., Fakih, F. T., & Cassiani, S. H. D. B. (2019). Prescription errors in Brazilian
hospitals: a multi-centre exploratory survey. Cadernos de Saúde Pública, 25, 313-320.
17. Mohan, P., Sharma, A. K., & Panwar, S. S. (2014). Identification and quantification of
prescription errors. Medical journal armed forces India, 70(2), 149-153.
18. Korb-Savoldelli, V., Boussadi, A., Durieux, P., & Sabatier, B. (2018). Prevalence of
computerized physician order entry systems–related medication prescription errors: A
systematic review. International journal of medical informatics, 111, 112-122.
8
19. Shrestha, R., & Prajapati, S. (2019). Assessment of prescription pattern and prescription
error in outpatient Department at Tertiary Care District Hospital, Central Nepal. Journal
of pharmaceutical policy and practice, 12(1), 1-9.
20. Keers, R. N., Williams, S. D., Cooke, J., & Ashcroft, D. M. (2013). Causes of medication
administration errors in hospitals: a systematic review of quantitative and qualitative
evidence. Drug safety, 36, 1045-1067.
21. McBride-Henry, K., & Foureur, M. (2016). Medication administration errors:
understanding the issues. Australian Journal of Advanced Nursing, The, 23(3), 33-41.
22. Calabrese, A. D., Erstad, B. L., Brandl, K., Barletta, J. F., Kane, S. L., & Sherman, D. S.
(2011). Medication administration errors in adult patients in the ICU. Intensive care
medicine, 27, 1592-1598.
23. Blignaut, A. J., Coetzee, S. K., Klopper, H. C., & Ellis, S. M. (2017). Medication
administration errors and related deviations from safe practice: an observational
study. Journal of clinical nursing, 26(21-22), 3610-3623.
24. Shawahna, R., Abbas, A., & Ghanem, A. (2019). Medication transcription errors in
hospitalized patient settings: a consensual study in the Palestinian nursing practice. BMC
health services research, 19(1), 1-12.
25. Fahimi, F., Abbasi, N. M., Abrishami, R., Sistanizad, M., Mazidi, T., Faghihi, T., … &
BANI, A. S. (2019). Transcription errors observed in a teaching hospital.
26. Shawahna, R., Rahman, N. U., Ahmad, M., Debray, M., Yliperttula, M., & Declèves, X.
(2013). Impact of prescriber’s handwriting style and nurse’s duty duration on the
prevalence of transcription errors in public hospitals. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 22(34), 550-558.
27. Franklin, B. D., & O’grady, K. (2017). Dispensing errors in community pharmacy:
frequency, clinical significance and potential impact of authentication at the point of
dispensing. International Journal of Pharmacy Practice, 15(4), 273-281.
28. Szeinbach, S., Seoane-Vazquez, E., Parekh, A., & Herderick, M. (2017). Dispensing
errors
in
community
pharmacy:
perceived
influence
of
factors. International Journal for Quality in Health Care, 19(4), 203-209.
sociotechnical