Reading strategies

 

Online-class activities, Critical Reading Strategies.

Overview

In the first part, you are going to read a persuasive essay and identify the thesis statement (bold/underline) and keywords. Then answer the questions that follow the essay.

In the second part you will read a descriptive essay that discusses how ethical, emotional and logical appeals are used in texts to influence the readers in believing in what is being said. Answer the questions that follow the essay.

In Part three, you will read an analytical essay and answer the following questions.

In part four, you will watch a few advertisements. Describe each of the ads in your words and identify if they use ethos, pathos or logos to make their point.

Part One

Read the following essay and identify the thesis statement and key words in each sentence by underlining them.

Answer the questions at the end of the essay.

Bringing Babies Back to Japan

Japanese society is facing its most serious threat in recent years. Japan’s birthrate keeps falling steadily. If this continues, the population will get smaller and smaller. While the number of babies is decreasing, the average Japanese life span is increasing. It is one of the longest in the world. This is a national catastrophe because there are fewer working-age people who pay into the social security system, and there will eventually be too few workers. The Japanese can no longer delay addressing the issue of its shrinking population. The only way to grow the population is by bringing babies back to Japan. Japan’s entire social structure, including families, businesses, and the government, must work together to encourage families to have babies.

In the past, many people thought raising children to be the only goal and responsibility of women. Now, Japanese women no longer seem interested solely in raising children, and society needs to accept this. Japanese women want to work, either for money or for their own interests. In fact, like many women in the world today, they would like to both work and raise children. But Japanese society is against this. Some companies, for example, even tell women to quit working when they get married or have children. As a result, Japanese women are having fewer children or no children at all. Society should help set up ways for them both to work and to have children.

One major force in society that has the power to enable women both to work and to raise children is Japanese companies. Usually, people don’t think of a company as a force in shaping families, but this attitude should be reconsidered. Japanese companies need to recognize their role in shaping families and think more about supporting them. First, they should offer affordable child care, and the government should help them. This would allow women to have children and still have a good career. According to my pen pal in Norway, for example, Norway has a good system of child care, where working mothers can even visit their children at lunchtime. Furthermore, in Norway, you can see a high rate of working women and a stable birthrate. The Norwegian child-care system is an appropriate example for Japan to follow.

Even though the raising of children is not an easy job or a traditional job for Japanese men, we must accept that it is partly men’s work, too. It is essential that Japanese fathers help more in the home. After all, the children are theirs, too. Also, the Japanese government and companies should set up a better system of parental leave so that both parents can care for their families. My brother-in-law, for example, didn’t take his parental leave because he thought it would hurt his career. I have heard many similar stories. It is important that fathers be able to take parental leave without threatening their jobs. In Norway, for instance, men can and do take paternity leave without concern for their careers. Perhaps Japanese companies should consider making paternity leave a requirement so that there could be no question about its impact on one’s career. Paternity leave is important because it helps families to understand the father’s role sooner, when babies are young.

Some Japanese couples think that parenting is too expensive. It is a pity that couples have to abandon having children for economic reasons. It is the government’s job to help make child raising more affordable. Many countries’ governments are using different ways to help parents financially. These may include tax breaks or one-time payments to new parents. While it is true that many people don’t want to pay higher taxes to support other people’s children, producing the next generation of Japan is a question of our nation’s existence. Everyone, therefore, must help pay.

Increasing the birthrate is a key defense against the shrinking of Japanese society. There needs to be a balance between raising children and working. In order to find this balance, all members of Japanese society should participate in raising and paying for the cost of children. In the long run, a vibrant young population helps everyone, including companies, families, and taxpayers, in Japanese society. We had better take matters seriously for a bright Japanese future. Imagine your own old age, without any children. What would happen?

Answer the following questions based on the essay:

(i) Look at the following lists. They show the four main arguments and the four counterarguments in the essay. Match the counterarguments with the arguments. (ex: 1-c)

Counterarguments

Argument

s

1. Looking after children is hard work, and most Japanese men don’t have experience with it.

2. Nobody wants to pay for another person’s children.

3. Many people consider child raising the work of women.

4. It is not generally considered a company’s job to help raise families.

Argument

a. Japanese companies need to make it easy for working parents to keep their jobs and have children, too.

b. Women should be able to have a career and to raise children.

c. Men must also participate in raising children.

d. Producing Japan’s next generation is so important that the nation should offer attractive financial incentive for this work.

(ii) Which of the following functions does the conclusion serve? Check (✓) as many as apply.

1. It summarizes the arguments.

2. It recommends a course of action.

3. It gives a final comment on the topic.

(iii) If you were writing on this topic, what other arguments would you use to support the writer’s thesis?

Part Two

Please read the following essay and answer the questions that follow:

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Owlcation

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Social Sciences

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Psychology

The Three Pillars of Persuasion:

Ethos

,

Logos

,

Pathos

Updated on May 14, 2016

Nadia Archuleta

Have you ever wanted to get your way? Perhaps you have an issue about which you are passionate. Perhaps you’ve wanted to get a job – or get a raise in the job you already have. Perhaps you simply want to win an argument. The way to do all this is through the use of persuasion.

When you attempt to persuade someone, you are attempting to do one of two things – or perhaps both. For one, you may be trying to convince them that your personal truth is the truth. Think of a courtroom: the prosecutor is trying to convince the jury that the defender is guilty and deserved punishment. The defense attorney is trying to convince the just of the opposite truth: the defender is not guilty beyond a reasonable doubt. Second, you may be trying to convince a person to act: give a job, a raise, a ride to school, change a policy, join you in a political protest.

Whether speaking or writing, the way to persuade someone is to use rhetoric: the art of effective writing or speaking. Since the time of Aristotle, people have used the three pillars of persuasion in their rhetoric: ethos, logos, and pathos.

Ethos

The persuasive technique of ethos relates to ethics. For the ethical appeal, writers or speakers want to convince the audience that they are a credible source. Audiences listen to and believe people whom they believe are ethical. Some authors are experts in their topic, so they have credibility all ready. For the rest of us, we must convince the audience. We do this by proving our character or our reliability.

Following are some examples of ethos, the ethical appeal:

· A student is arguing against block scheduling, or rotating 90-minute classes. In his introduction he highlights the fact that he is a straight-A student and his mother is a teacher.

· The fact that the student achieves straight As and has a parent who is an expert in the field lends the student some level of credibility.

A CEO speaks to her employees about topics relevant to the company.

· The CEO has authority in her topic because she spent years getting to her position.

From Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech: He quoted Lincoln while standing in front of the Lincoln Memorial. He also quoted the United States Constitution.

· Quoting Lincoln lends gravity and authority to his speech; Lincoln is recognized as the emancipator of the slaves, and King was speaking to equal rights for African-Americans. In quoting the Constitution, he was referring to the highest law in the country.

How to make this persuasion technique, ethos, work for you:

· If you do not naturally have authority or expertise concerning your topic, you can research those who do. Adhere to standard rules of grammar.

· Build your reputation. At the very least, show up early for your speech so that you can greet people as they come in. Dress well, and project confidence. Also, use a level of language that is appropriate for your audience.

· Build rapport with your audience. From the start, use inclusive language to get them thinking on your side. Use rhetorical questions. For example, “Have you ever thought about…?” People are conditioned to answer questions. Invite them into your thinking with phrases such as, “Well, let me tell you about…” (speech) or “While researching this topic I discovered…” (paper).

· Encourage the feeling that you are fair – ethical. Acknowledging the counter-argument is an excellent way to build this aspect of ethos.

· Ethical appeals work because when people believe the speaker intends no harm, they are more willing to listen to what she has to say.

· Ideally, you want to establish your ethos, your credibility in the beginning and maintain it throughout.

Logos

The persuasive technique of logos relates to logic and reasoning. This appeal means citing facts and statistics, citing authorities on the subject, and making logical analogies.

Following are some examples of logos, logical reasoning:

· From Al Gore’s speech “A Generational Challenge to Repower America” July 17th, 2008,

“Two major studies from military intelligence experts have warned our leaders about the dangerous national security implications of the climate crisis, including the possibility of hundreds of millions of climate refugees destabilizing nations around the world. Just two days ago, 27 senior statesmen and retired military leaders warned of the national security threat from an “energy tsunami” that would be triggered by a loss of our access to foreign oil. Meanwhile, the war in Iraq continues, and now the war in Afghanistan appears to be getting worse.”

· Gore paraphrases military intelligence experts as well as senior statesmen and retired military leaders. These are logical sources to support his claim. He also draws a connection between their findings and his protest of the war.

In a paper against smoking, the fact is relayed, “Cigarette smoke contains over 4,800 chemicals, 69 of which are known to cause cancer.”

· The statistics support the claim that smoking is unhealthy.

A classic argument: That cannot be my book. I wrote my name in my book. This book has no name written in it. Therefore, it cannot be my book.”

· This speaker argues logically – he sets a truth, shows how the current situation does not meet the truth, and therefore argues against a claim.

Sojourner Truth (1797 – 1883) used a similar rhetoric in her “Ain’t I a Woman” speech given in 1851 to the Women’s Convention in Akron, Ohio: “That man over there says that women need to be helped into carriages, and lifted over ditches, and to have the best place everywhere. Nobody ever helps me into carriages, or over mud-puddles, or gives me any best place! And ain’t I a woman? Look at me! Look at my arm! I have ploughed and planted, and gathered into barns, and no man could head me! And ain’t I a woman? I could work as much and eat as much as a man – when I could get it – and bear the lash as well! And ain’t I a woman? I have borne thirteen children, and seen most all sold off to slavery, and when I cried out with my mother’s grief, none but Jesus heard me! And ain’t I a woman?”

· Truth sets a truth laid about by a white man: women deserve special, delicate treatment. She then points out that none of those considerations were given to her, despite the fact that she could even keep up with men. She then drives home the reality that she did not even get the basic considerations, much less those accorded a woman. Her repeated, “Ain’t I a woman?” brings the argument back to the fact that the stated truth is not being upheld.

How to make this persuasion technique, logos, work for you:

· Conduct extensive research of reliable sources and use the facts to support your claim, the personal truth you are trying to convince your audience of.

· Whenever relevant use statistics; people believe in the math.

· Use “if-then” statements with solid supporting evidence. For example, a speaker could argue that if a state raises the legal driving age to 18, fewer teen-related accidents and deaths will result. The speaker could then point out the obvious – fewer teens driving should mean fewer teens causing accidents – and also use statistics to support the statement.

· Start with your claim, your personal truth you want to convince the audience of. Brainstorm the reasons you believe this claim to be true. Supply evidence at every step of the way, and ensure that evidence supports your claim. For example, there’s no point in mentioning high rates of teens causing accidents if you are trying to argue for off-campus lunch in high school.

· Logos, logical reasoning, should provide the foundation and structure of your argument. People believe in facts and evidence; you will convince them to agree with you if you provide enough logical reasoning.

· Ideally you should use logos throughout the body of your speech or paper.

Pathos

The persuasive technique of pathos relates to the emotional, or sympathetic appeal. Speakers and writers use pathos to garner sympathy from an audience. In addition, successful writers engenders the target emotions from the audience, be it pity, anger, or regret.

Following are some examples of pathos, the emotional appeal:

· Barack Obama Night Before the Election Speech Manassas, Prince William County, Virginia November 3, 2008:

“This country is more decent than one where a woman in Ohio, on the brink of retirement, finds herself one illness away from disaster after a lifetime of hard work.

“This country is more generous than one where a man in Indiana has to pack up the equipment he’s worked on for twenty years and watch it shipped off to China, and then chokes up as he explains how he felt like a failure when he went home to tell his family the news.

“We are more compassionate than a government that lets veterans sleep on our streets and families slide into poverty; that sits on its hands while a major American city drowns before our eyes.”

· This emotional appeal plays on people’s sense of guilt. Obama wants people to feel as if they are truly better than such apathetic voters. Obama uses the snob appeal fallacy in this argument, but it is still a powerful emotional appeal.

Hilary Rodham Clinton Concession Speech, Washington D.C., June 7, 2008: “Although we weren’t able to shatter that highest, hardest glass ceiling this time, thanks to you, it’s got about 18 million cracks in it.”

· This is a very emotional appeal for feminist voters. Clinton alludes to the glass ceiling that prevents women from reaching the highest levels of business and power. She points out that, thanks to her receiving 18 million votes the ceiling has cracks in it. People who voted for her will feel very emotional about the attempt – and failure – to shatter that glass ceiling.

From an advertisement for the Pedigree Adoption Drive:“Meet Otis. Otis lives in a shelter. He sleeps a lot. There isn’t much else to do. When people walk by, Otis opens his eyes and wags his tail. Then they leave. So he eats. And waits. And remembers. The smell of home, scratches from his owner, a squirrel he used to chase. Then he gets tired. And sleeps again.”

· For animal-lovers, this ad presents a very emotional appeal. It tells the story of how the dog used to have a happy life and how he misses that life. It implies that the dog is depressed. Coupled with the picture of a sad-looking dog in a cage, It definitely aims to move people to act.

How to make this persuasion technique, pathos, work for you:

· Appeal to people’s beliefs and feelings, both their higher emotions – fairness, lov,e pity – and their baser emotion – greed, lust, revenge.

· Use anecdotes, stories that support your claim and call people to action.

· Consider your word choice. Aim for a certain tone – humor, sarcasm, excitement – and choose words that relate to that tone.

· Use figurative language.

· The majority of the arguments in the popular press relate to emotional appeals. Pathos moves people to action because it appeals to the heart. People react without fully considering why they are doing so.

· Ideally, use pathos at the end of your speech or essay. The end of your reasoning is the last thing people have in their minds, so they remember it. If you can catch their emotions, they are more likely to heed your call to action.

Based on what you learned from this descriptive essay on ethos, pathos, logos, answer the following:

1. Define ethos, pathos and logos in your own words.

2. Give three examples from your own life when you have used ethos, pathos and logos to convince your audience (or to get what you want).

Part Three

This section presents an analytic essay. Please underline the thesis statement and topic sentences and answer the questions that follow.

Just Confessions

  Saul Kassin and Gisli Gudjonsson, in their article for Scientific American Mind, “True Crimes, False Confessions,” argue that “society should discuss the urgent need to reform practices that contribute to false confessions and to require mandatory videotaping of all interviews and interrogations” (2005, p. 26).  After analyzing their argument, I shall argue that, although one might object that Kassin and Gudjonsson focus too heavily on the importance of protecting criminal suspects, they provide a compelling argument that social justice requires such reforms as mandatory video-tapping of police interrogations. 

In developing their case for the need to reform interrogation tactics, Kassin and Gudjonsson survey a number of studies regarding the role of confessions in criminal investigations.  For example, they are at pains to provide evidence that interrogations are often influenced by a bias on the part of the interrogator.  Further concern is found in the fact that Miranda rights, as found in the American legal system, are insufficient safeguards, given that suspects, especially innocent ones, often waive those rights.  Finally, Kassin and Gudjonsson note that aggressive interrogation tactics can often produce false confessions. 
    What makes these findings most troubling, according to Kassin and Gudjonsson, is the strong correlation between false confession and wrongful conviction.  Trial jurors, we are told, are inclined to give disproportionate weight to a confessions, even taking it to outweigh so-called “hard evidence.”  As a characteristic example, Kassin and Gudjonsson cite the case of Bruce Godschalk.  Even when DNA evidence proved Godschalk could not have been the rapist, the District Attorney of the case refused to release him from prison, stating that “…I trust my detective and his tape-recorded evidence” (Kassin and Gudjonsson, 2005, p. 28).  Because of this tendency on the part of jurors and prosecutors, together with the facts listed above regarding the potential for unrestricted interrogations to elicit false confessions,  Kassin and Gudjonsson argue for the need to reform police interrogation tactics. 
    Underlying their argument is the implicit moral principle that social justice requires that we do everything we can to minimize the potential to wrongly convict innocent persons.  This may seem obvious, but one could reasonably question whether it puts too much emphasis on protecting potentially innocent suspects and not enough on convicting potentially guilty criminals.  In a perfectly just system, criminals would always be brought to justice and treated appropriately, and innocent suspects would always be exonerate.  However, any system devised and implemented by humans must deal with the reality of imperfection. 
    The difficult moral question we need to ask is how we are to balance the needs of society to protect itself from criminals while at the same time protecting the rights of innocent persons.  We need to ask at what cost we are willing to limit the ability of police and Crown prosecutors to prosecute criminal suspects.   Imagine, for example, the following two systems: (1) Almost no innocent persons are ever convicted, but a very high percentage of recidivist offenders are able to escape conviction, (2) A very high percentage of offenders are caught and brought to justice; however, a small but non-negligible percentage (say 3%) of innocent persons are unjustly caught in the system and thus wrongly punished for crimes they never committed.  Neither of these is very palatable, but if forced to choose, my intuitions favor result (2).  Of course, there are many variables at work here, and I do not have the space to delve into a detailed discussion of all the relevant trade-offs.  My basic point is that social justice requires not only that we protect innocent individuals from prosecution, but that we hold guilty persons accountable for their actions. 
    While I think that this is a reasonable worry to raise given the tenor of Kassin and Gudjonsson’s article, I do not think it ultimately undermines their argument.  That is, I think one might reasonably object that they are overly focused on the possibility of false confessions without saying much about the utility of true confessions.  However, their specific proposal that interrogations be video-taped does not seem to diminish the ability of police to effectively interrogate suspects and, when possible, to elicit a confession.  Indeed, they conclude their essay by citing a study showing that police largely found the practice of video-taping to be quite useful and not to inhibit criminal investigations. 

So, even if one thinks that Kassin and Gudjonsson are a bit one-side in focusing on false confessions, ultimately I think these authors provide a compelling argument for the need for such reforms as mandatory video-taping of police interrogations. 
 

References

Kassin, Saul and Gudjonsson, Gisli (2005). “True Crimes, False Confessions,” Scientific American Mind, July, pp. 24-31. 

Answer the following questions:

1. This is an analytic essay, which means it analyses another text/theory. What is the text/theory that is being analysed?

2. Does the author of the essay agree with the text that is being analysed?

3. What kind of tools were used in this analysis, for example, evidence, prior research, experiments etc?

4. Is there in faulty logic in the analysis?

5. Did the essay convince you to “buy” their point? Why or why not?

Part Four

Please watch the following advertisements, describe each of them briefly, and state weather they are using ethos, pathos or logos or a combination of the three:

1. Home Insurance Commercial

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DzZ8kS1rHrg

2. Baby Product Commercial

3. Make-up Commercial

4. Medicine Commercial