UND The International Journal of Management Education Synthesis Paper

Focus of the synthesis:

Compare and contrast the results (labeled “Discussion” in the first article and “Results” in the second) of each study. What are the authors’ main points/main professional effect when it comes to informational interviews?

Synthesize the information

The Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability
ISSN: 1838-3815 (online) Journal Homepage: https://ojs.deakin.edu.au/index.php/jtlge/
Informational interviews help undergraduate students at the midpoint of non-specialist STEM degrees confirm their career
aspirations
Louise Lexis1, Jency Thomas2, Caroline J. Taylor1, Jarrod E. Church4, Brianna L. Julien5
Corresponding author: Brianna Julien (B.Julien@latrobe.edu.au)
1
Department of Physiology Anatomy and Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, La Trobe University,
Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6522-537X
2
Department of Physiology Anatomy and Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, La Trobe University,
Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0795-7951
3
Department of Physiology Anatomy and Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, La Trobe University,
Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2151-8709
4
Department of Physiology Anatomy and Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, La Trobe University,
Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8266-4043
5
Department of Physiology Anatomy and Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, La Trobe University,
Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7531-9989
Abstract
Higher education institutions are expected to produce career-ready graduates who are
equipped for the challenges of the 21 st century. Employability experts argue that this can be
achieved by integrating career development learning (CDL) into the curriculum. The
informational interview helps students learn more about a career by interviewing a
professional working in a field of interest, and helps students to make decisions regarding
their career plans. The aims of the study were to determine students’: 1) preferred career
paths and career identity at the midpoint of their non-specialist degree; and 2) experiences
and perceptions of an informational interview module. An informational interview module
was embedded into a second-year human biosciences subject taken by students in
undergraduate non-specialist health-related STEM degrees. Students indicated their preferred
career, learned about informational interviews, and conducted an interview with a
professional working in the field they wished to enter. After the interview, students completed
reflection activities, responding to open-ended and Likert-scale questions. 91 student
reflections were analysed to determine students’ career identity, and their experiences and
perceptions of the module. Descriptive statistical analysis was conducted on Likert-scale
answers and inductive thematic analysis was conducted on open-ended answers. Students’
career preferences were wide-ranging, with allied health the most popular. Career identity
was reasonably well established in this cohort. The student experience was overall positive,
and students’ thought the module was useful in supporting their career planning and career
development. In conclusion, an informational interview assignment is an effective career
development tool for human biosciences students.
Keywords:
employability,
STEM
education,
career
identity,
career
development
learning,
higher
education,
career
aspirations
Lexis, L., Thomas, J., Taylor, C.J., Church, J.E., & Julien, B.L. (2021). Informational interviews help undergraduate students at the mid-point
of non-specialist STEM degrees confirm their career aspiration. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 12(2), 299–
315.
299
Introduction
Governments and communities have an expectation that higher education institutions will produce
career-ready graduates who are equipped for the challenges of the 21st century (Bridgstock, 2009;
Oliver, 2015). Indeed, the Australian Federal government announced the Job-ready Graduates
Package of higher education reforms, including the National Priorities and Industry Linkage Fund
(NPILF) (Department of Education, Skills and Employment, 2020). The NPILF funds universities to
engage with industry on the design and delivery of courses that will produce ‘job-ready graduates’,
that is, students with real world job skills. The NPILF ‘encourages innovation by using industry-linked
teaching models and supporting best practice’ (Department of Education, Skills and Employment,
2020). With funding explicitly tied to graduates’ readiness for work, Australian universities must
redouble their efforts to support students to develop their employability skills during their studies. A
recent study by Lock and Kelly (2020) showed that many students about to embark on a wide range
of degrees at 15 Australian universities had a poor understanding of the career pathways available
to them upon completion of their degree. This was particularly evident for students about to begin a
non-specialist degree, in which a majority showed limited or somewhat limited knowledge of the
career outcomes related to their respective courses (Lock & Kelly, 2020). This supports the appeals
of leading scholars to deliver career development learning (CDL) across degree programs
(Bridgstock, Grant-Iramu, & McAlpine, 2019). CDL can be defined as Learning about the content and
process of career development or life/career management. The content of [CDL] in essence
represents learning about self and learning about the world of work. Process learning represents the
development of the skills necessary to navigate a successful and satisfying life/career (McMahon,
Patton, & Tatham, 2003; p. 6). Delivery of CDL in the early stages of a university degree shapes
student understanding of possible career pathways and facilitates the development of true career
identities (Bridgstock et al., 2019).
Fugate, Kinicki and Ashforth (2004) described a career identity as an intellectual compass that helps
direct relevant learning, and supports informed and appropriate career choices. It is achieved
through personal investment in the development of one’s future career and employability, and is
reflected in an ability to draw on experiences and coherently communicate a personal narrative
which aligns to preferred employment options (Tomlinson, 2017). A career identity is thus an
integration of relevant experiences into a meaningful paradigm in which an individual links their
enthusiasm, interest and proficiencies with desirable career roles (Fugate et al., 2004; Meijers,
1998).
Given that CDL is focused on improving understanding of one’s self and the world of work, effective
CDL activities are numerous and varied, although student-centered authentic tasks are an integral
component (Bridgstock et al., 2019). One example is the ‘informational interview’, a career
exploration tool that helps individuals Get the inside scoop on careers by having a conversation with
a professional already working in an industry of interest (Crosby, 2010, p. 1). Informational
interviews are ‘simple to assign yet challenging to do’ and appropriate for students at different
stages of postsecondary education and in different discipline areas (Decarie, 2010). The purpose of
the interview is for the student to learn more about the interviewee’s career path, the skills and
credentials required, the nature of the occupation on a daily basis, and the industry trends and
challenges (Crosby, 2010; Lindsey & Barker, n.d.). Informational interviews give students an
opportunity to connect with a real person who can provide practical advice and who may act as a
model for the student’s future (Decarie, 2010). Incorporation of an informational interview into the
curriculum is suitable for adult learners, who value autonomy and self-direction (Lieb & Goodlad,
2005), because the student chooses who they interview and can shape the direction the interview
takes to suit their needs (Decarie, 2010). By completing an interview, the interviewer should develop
a realistic understanding of what a career entails, thereby acquiring the information needed to make
Lexis, L., Thomas, J., Taylor, C.J., Church, J.E., & Julien, B.L. (2021). Informational interviews help undergraduate students at the mid-point
of non-specialist STEM degrees confirm their career aspiration. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 12(2), 299–
315.
300
an informed decision to continue to pursue an interest in a career path, or explore elsewhere
(Crosby, 2010; Lindsey & Barker, n.d.).
Although informational interviews have been popular for some time (Crosby, 2010), research into
their effectiveness as a form of CDL is in its infancy. Educators in the field of business have published
papers describing the curriculum models they have used, and anecdotally, have reported on the
positive aspects of using informational interview assignments as a career development tool (Decarie,
2010; Mulvaney, 2003; Teller, 2017). Mulvaney (2003) introduced an informational interview
assignment for business communication students to bridge the gap between their college life and
future career, and reports that the assignment meets with gratifying success (p. 66). Reasons
attributed to success include promotion of career exploration, networking, and provision of insight
into the accounting profession (Mulvaney, 2003). Decarie (2010) introduced an informational
interview assignment into an introductory business communication course and reported a positive
impact, reflected in the students being excited about their future careers (p. 313) and having a new
connection between their skills and their behavior and a new connection with themselves and their
futures (p. 314). To help students navigate ‘boundaryless careers’, Teller (2017) introduced
informational interviews to teach business students the benefits of networking, and found that
students gained an understanding of its importance for their future careers.
A limited number of studies have focused on student perceptions of the value of informational
interview assignments. Mackey and Courtright (2012) explored criminal justice and social science
students’ perceptions of an informational interview assignment. The authors conducted thematic
analysis of 78 student summaries and reflections where they highlighted components of the
interview that they found particularly interesting. A majority of students thought the interview was
valuable because it provided benefits relating to career selection and preparation (Mackey &
Courtright, 2012). Similarly, Plakhotnik (2017) showed through analysis of 89 surveys that human
resource management students thought they had learned more about the profession of a manager
and gained an insight into careers in the field. Lun (2020) showed through analysis of 23 student
surveys that an informational interview assignment helped human services students develop an
understanding of the field. Collectively, these results indicate that students studying criminal justice
and social science, human resource management, and human services find an informational
interview assignment to be a valuable career planning tool. Nevertheless, there exists a paucity of
research regarding the impact of informational interview assignments on students’ career planning
and development in undergraduate non-specialist science technology engineering and mathematics
(STEM) related degrees. These degrees are a pathway to a multiplicity of careers, thus, further
research in this area is warranted.
The basis of the study reported in this paper was an assessed module on informational interviews
for human biosciences students which was developed and implemented in undergraduate nonspecialist health-related STEM degrees. The objectives of this study were to determine:
1. Students’ preferred career paths and career identity.
2. Students’ experience and perceptions of the informational interview module.
The informational interview is the authentic career development tool that was used to promote
career planning and career development in the students. The intention was that the informational
interview module would prompt students to identify their preferred career path and obtain
information that would assist in the decision to pursue the career or investigate elsewhere. This
process supports students along their journey of developing a career identity. Knowledge of
students’ preferred careers is important, as it informs future work around resource development to
support diverse cohorts in non-specialist degrees. Similarly, knowledge of students’ career identity is
invaluable, along with student experience and perceptions data, for informing future work, in
particular, how the curriculum can be tweaked to enhance CDL for students.
Lexis, L., Thomas, J., Taylor, C.J., Church, J.E., & Julien, B.L. (2021). Informational interviews help undergraduate students at the mid-point
of non-specialist STEM degrees confirm their career aspiration. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 12(2), 299–
315.
301
Methods
Participants and context
The informational interview module was embedded into a first-semester second-year human
biosciences subject delivered over 12 weeks and contributed 10% of the final grade. Ninety-one
students in undergraduate non-specialist health-related STEM degrees (Health Sciences 43%;
Biomedicine 22%; Sport and Exercise Science 31%; other 4%) attempted the module.
The module was introduced to students in the first week of semester, both in class and via the
subject Learning Management System site. A guide was provided to students which set out the
requirements of the module, including a weekly schedule and marking rubric (access the guide here:
https://doi.org/10.26181/60c189aa2c55e). Students were provided with an ePortfolio workbook
that included instructions for completing the module, space to indicate their preferred career path
pre-interview, space to record what they had learned during the interview, and space to complete
their post-interview reflection activities. In the first half of semester, students indicated their
preferred career path and completed a preparatory online course available via LinkedIn Learning
called Informational Interviewing (Bruno, 2017) and prepared for their interview. The online course
taught students about the structure and purpose of an informational interview, how to prepare for
the interview and contact professionals, what to expect, how to analyse and evaluate the interview,
and how to follow-up with the interviewee post-interview. In the second half of semester students
conducted the informational interview with a professional in the field they wanted to know more
about or wished to enter. Students completed the module in 2020 when learning had been moved
to remote delivery and social distancing and lockdown periods were in effect meaning interviews
were not conducted in person.
Students were instructed to cover the following topics during the interview but were not given
specific questions to ask and were not asked to record the questions: career path including
challenges; skills and credentials; a typical day and average hours worked; and current and future
state of the industry including challenges. Students completed post-interview reflection activities in
their ePortfolio workbook by responding to questions (open-ended and Likert-scale) relating to their
career identity, interview experience and perceptions of the module activities.
Study design and data analysis
This study used a mixed methods concurrent triangulation design. In this design, a researcher
collects and analyses quantitative (numeric) and qualitative (text) data concurrently (Creswell et al.,
2003). The rationale for this approach is to attempt to confirm, cross-validate or corroborate
findings within a single study resulting in well-validated and substantiated findings (Creswell et al.,
2003). To address the objectives of the study, student ePortfolio responses regarding preferred
career path were analysed, with careers grouped into categories, and each category presented as a
percentage. To further address the objectives of the study 91 student reflections completed at the
end of the module were analysed. These comprised open-ended responses, and 10-point and 5point Likert-scale responses. Likert-scale questions analysed were related to: stage of decision
making related to career plan; interest level in the career post interview compared to pre interview;
size of professional network; self-rating of knowledge and skills; rating of the interview experience;
perceptions of the preparatory online course; perceptions of the usefulness of the module for
promoting career planning and career development; and students’ intention to use informational
interviews in the future outside of official studies. Open-ended questions analysed were related to:
initial impressions of the interview including the good, the bad and the ugly; the aspects of the
module that were most helpful for career planning; and the practical changes that could help
Lexis, L., Thomas, J., Taylor, C.J., Church, J.E., & Julien, B.L. (2021). Informational interviews help undergraduate students at the mid-point
of non-specialist STEM degrees confirm their career aspiration. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 12(2), 299–
315.
302
support career planning. Inductive or data-driven thematic analysis using the approach described by
Braun and Clarke (2006) was conducted on the responses to the open-ended questions. Frequency
of responses within the identified themes are presented quantitatively to show how common the
themes are relative to each other. Descriptive statistical analysis was conducted on the quantitative
data to show each component of the Likert-scale as a percentage. The study was conducted with
approval of the Institution’s Human Research Ethics Committee (HEC18127).
Results
Career paths and career identity
To gain insight into students’ career identities, students were asked questions about decision making
related to their career plan, and their interest level in the chosen career post-interview compared to
pre-interview. They also responded to questions regarding their professional network and perceived
knowledge and skills.
Decision making related to career plan
When students were asked to choose which one of four statements best described their thinking
about their career path, most students indicated that they had a good idea of or had decided on their
preferred career path; a minority of students had not decided (Table 1).
Table 1: Decision Making Related to Career Plan (N=88). Students were asked to select the
statement that best described their current thinking.
Statement describing thinking about your career path
Percent student
responses
I have not decided on a career and am not concerned about this at present
2.3%
I have not decided on a career and am worried about making a decision
10.2%
I have a good idea on my future career, but am open to other options
53.4%
I know what I want to do and have a plan on how to achieve my career goals
34.1%
Preferred career paths
Students identified a preferred career path and then interviewed a professional working in that field.
Students wished to pursue a range of different career paths, with allied health the most popular (Fig.
1). Of those students who wanted to pursue a career in allied health, physiotherapy was the most
popular (59.1% of students), followed by optometry (6.8% of students), and equal numbers wishing
to pursue careers in speech pathology (4.5%), psychology (4.5%), exercise physiology (4.5%) and
prosthetics and orthotics (4.5%).
Students were instructed to ask the interviewee about: their career path including challenges; skills
and credentials; a typical day and average hours worked; and current and future state of the
industry including challenges. These topics were suggested as a mechanism for the students to gain
deeper insights into the career path of interest, and to help them decide whether to continue
pursuing the career path or investigate elsewhere. Students indicated, using a 5-point Likert scale
(‘much less interested’, ‘less interested’, ‘no more or less interested’, ‘more interested’, ‘much more
interested’) what their level of interest in the career path was post interview, compared to before
they embarked on the module (N=87). No students were much less or less interested, 26.4% of
students had not changed their mind, 49.4% of students were more interested, and 24.1% of
Lexis, L., Thomas, J., Taylor, C.J., Church, J.E., & Julien, B.L. (2021). Informational interviews help undergraduate students at the mid-point
of non-specialist STEM degrees confirm their career aspiration. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 12(2), 299–
315.
303
students were much more interested in pursuing the career path post interview. This indicates that
for 74% of the students, the learnings from the interview enhanced their interest in pursuing the
career path and helped to develop their career identity.
Professional network
Professional connectedness is a key capability required for fostering a successful networked approach
to graduate employability (Bridgstock, 2016), along with the development of one’s career identity.
The size of a student’s professional network is an indicator of their connectedness capabilities, and
therefore, their career identity. When students were asked, using a 5-point scale, how many
professionals they know and interact with in the field they wish to enter, most responses showed
that students know and interact with 1-2 (38.6% of students) or 3-5 (34.1% of students)
professionals. Fewer students know and interact with 6-10 professionals (12.5%) or more than 10
professionals (5.7%). Nine per cent of students did not know and interact with any professionals in
the field they wish to enter.
Figure 1: Preferred Career Paths of Students (N=89). Students named the career they wished to pursue,
with allied health the most common response.
Perceived knowledge and skills
Students’ perceptions of their knowledge of what a professional does in the field they wish to enter,
along with their perceived ability to research a career of interest, and analyse and evaluate their
findings are integral components of the building of a career identity (Fugate et al., 2004; Meijers,
1998; Tomlinson, 2017). Most students rated their knowledge of what a professional does in the
field they wish to enter as ‘good’ (53.4%) on a 5-point Likert scale (‘very poor’, ‘poor’, ‘fair’, ‘good’,
‘excellent’), with 28.4% of students rating their knowledge as ‘excellent’, and the remainder (18.2%)
rating their knowledge as ‘fair’. No students rated their knowledge as ‘poor’ or ‘very poor’. Similarly,
Lexis, L., Thomas, J., Taylor, C.J., Church, J.E., & Julien, B.L. (2021). Informational interviews help undergraduate students at the mid-point
of non-specialist STEM degrees confirm their career aspiration. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 12(2), 299–
315.
304
most students rated their ability to conduct an informational interview and analyse and evaluate an
informational interview that they conducted as ‘good’ (Fig. 2).
Figure 2: Student Perceptions of Their Ability to Conduct and Review an Informational Interview
After (N=88). Ratings provided at the end of the module on a 5-point Likert scale: very poor, poor, fair, good,
or excellent.
Interview experience
When students were asked to rate their interview experience on a scale from 1-10, with 10 being
the most positive, most students (95%) provided a rating of between 7-10, with only 5% of students
provided a rating of 6 or less. This indicates that the overall experience was positive for most
students, a finding that is supported by the qualitative data.
Eighty-six students recorded their initial impressions of the interview (Table 2), providing some
insight into the reasons for the overall experience rating. Most comments (104) were regarding a
positive experience, with noticeably less (24 comments) relating to a negative experience. The
positive experiences were largely associated with students stating that they had learnt more about
the career path of interest and that the interviewee was very approachable and happy to share
detailed information about their career journey. Although fewer in number, the negative comments
were mostly associated with issues regarding the interview itself, such as the time allocation or the
mode of communication such as a Zoom call. A minority of negative comments related to
interviewee issues, such as being time poor or perceived to be too early in their career progression.
Given that this was a new experience for students, it is not surprising that 23% of students indicated
in their open-ended response that they experienced a feeling of nervousness or awkwardness at
some stage during the interview.
Table 2. Themes Emerging from Student Responses (N=86) to the Open-Ended Question ‘What was
your Initial Impression of the Interview Including the Good, Bad and Ugly’. Representative quotes
provided.
Positive comments
Learning about a career path
(54%)


The interview was enjoyable and educational in giving a
more detailed account of working in a clinical environment
and being able to understand the processes and workings
of the health field.
It was very insightful as I was able to gain information
about Occupational Therapy. I was able to obtain detailed
Lexis, L., Thomas, J., Taylor, C.J., Church, J.E., & Julien, B.L. (2021). Informational interviews help undergraduate students at the mid-point
of non-specialist STEM degrees confirm their career aspiration. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 12(2), 299–
315.
305

Interviewee attributes (31%)



information about the requirements of an occupational
therapist and I am now more interested in pursuing this
career path.
I thoroughly enjoyed the interview. It was a really
beneficial experience to learn from someone well-versed
and knowledgeable about the industry I want to enter, and
occupation I want to undertake.
He was very polite and willing to share his story with me.
My interviewee [name] was amazing and went into detail
so much more than I could have asked for.
My interviewee was very nice and friendly and was
encouraging when I asked follow up questions or asked her
to clarify more after she answered one of my questions, I
also felt very comfortable talking to her which I felt was
important as it meant I enjoyed my interview with her
Negative comments
Interview issues (63%)



Interviewee issues (25%)



The only bad part about the interview that as it was online
zoom call, it was slightly harder to gain good eye contact
and harder to communicate and taking note was slightly
harder as connection would cut out sometimes
Unfortunately, ran out of time to ask all the questions
luckily enough I…found a neurosurgeon who was willing to
dedicate some time to answer my questions however the
time allocated was still not really enough to cover
everything and cover more in depth insight regarding this
field. i am looking to plan more interviews to gain more
insight and expand the information i have already
gathered.
The only negative of the interview was that [name] is still
relatively young career wise, so next time I may interview
someone who has 20 to 30 years in their profession.
The interviewer was speaking too fast for me retain all the
information.
She was…short on time and could only provide some of the
answers I was after
Student perceptions of the module
Preparatory online course
Most students agreed or strongly agreed that the online course helped them understand the
purpose of informational interviews, how to conduct an informational interview, and how to analyse
and evaluate an informational interview that they had conducted (Fig. 3).
Lexis, L., Thomas, J., Taylor, C.J., Church, J.E., & Julien, B.L. (2021). Informational interviews help undergraduate students at the mid-point
of non-specialist STEM degrees confirm their career aspiration. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 12(2), 299–
315.
306
Online course helped me understand
purpose of informational interviews
Online course helped me learn how to
conduct an informational interview
Online course helped me learn how to
analyse and evaluate an informational
interview that I conducted
0%
Strongly disagree
Disagree
20%
40%
Neutral
Agree
60%
80%
100%
Strongly agree
Figure 3: Student Perceptions of the Help Provided by the Preparatory Online Course on
Informational Interviews Completed Before Conducting Their Own Informational Interview (N=87).
Ratings provided at the end of the module on a 5-point Likert scale: strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree,
or strongly agree.
Knowledge and skills developed
Most students agreed or strongly agreed that completion of the module improved their
understanding of the state of the industry, and what a professional does in the field they wish to
enter. Similarly, most students agreed or strongly agreed that they had gained knowledge and
developed skills that would be useful in the future (Fig. 4).
Figure 4: Student Perceptions of the Knowledge and Skills They Developed by Completing the
Module (N=88). Ratings provided at the end of the module on a 5-point Likert scale: strongly disagree,
disagree, neutral, agree, or strongly agree.
Lexis, L., Thomas, J., Taylor, C.J., Church, J.E., & Julien, B.L. (2021). Informational interviews help undergraduate students at the mid-point
of non-specialist STEM degrees confirm their career aspiration. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 12(2), 299–
315.
307
Aspects of the My Career module that have been most helpful for career planning
Sixty-nine students provided open-ended responses relating to what they thought were the most
helpful aspects of the module, with most comments citing the provision of insight into a career and
help with career planning (Table 3.).
Table 3: Themes Emerging from Student Responses (N=69) to the Open-Ended Question ‘What
Aspects of the My Career Module have been most Helpful for your Career Planning’. Representative
quotes provided.
Career insights and planning (65%)
 It provides deeper insights to your potential career from the perspective of a professional
who has already achieved what you’re wanting to do in the future. In addition, it gives a
‘step-by-step’ idea on how to go about entering the field and what can be done to set
yourself apart from other people.

Interviewing a person from my desired career gave me insight I might not otherwise have
into the steps it takes to get there. It was also useful to find out the daily workings of an
orthodontist to see if they line up with what I thought an orthodontist did. Most of the
treatment of patients is about fully assessing them, planning and coming up with multiple
treatment options. There is a lot more thinking involved than I thought there was.
Inspirational and confidence building (15%)
 By getting me to talk to people in the field and answer the questions posed, the module has
eased a lot of my nerves and has made me realise how achievable my goals are if I really try
my best.

Getting me to do the interview was very helpful as it encouraged me to work harder and
apply myself, as l am now even more inspired to get into the field that l have dreamed of.
Understanding the purpose of informational interviews (10%)
 Given me the opportunity to understand what an Informational Interview is and how helpful
they are in relation to my future. As they provide me with a better understanding of the field
I want to enter once I’m finished with my tertiary education.

Completing an informational interview and knowing that I can use it as a tool for future
career prospects.
Making professional connections (8%)
 The informational interview itself was super important and definitely the most essential
aspect, as the process required me to learn to make connections with people and the
benefits of making connections. It taught me to be more professional, to put myself out
there more and to not be afraid to ask for help or for more information – it could be one of
the best things I do for myself, or even land me a job.

Being able to understand why networking is crucial in developing my own personal brand
and improving my chances of getting job opportunities within this field.
Practical changes that could help support career planning
Fifty-two students provided responses relating to practical changes that could help support career
planning, with most comments citing personal career adaptive behaviours, rather than changes to
the module itself (Table 4.).
Lexis, L., Thomas, J., Taylor, C.J., Church, J.E., & Julien, B.L. (2021). Informational interviews help undergraduate students at the mid-point
of non-specialist STEM degrees confirm their career aspiration. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 12(2), 299–
315.
308
Table 4: Themes Emerging from Student Responses (N=52) to the Open-Ended Question “Please
Suggest any Practical Changes that you Believe Could help Support your Career Planning”.
Representative quotes provided.
Taking personal responsibility using career adaptive behaviours (54% of comments)
 I could possibly be more proactive in seeking out more of these interviews with professionals
in the field I’m interested in. This will allow me to make a more informed decision in the
future.
 More supplementary learning outside of university… I could also attempt to reach out to
more people in the field and form a strong network to kickstart my career in the field.
More career options guidance (17% of comments)
 A designated meeting with a career advisor
 Maybe more resources on specific job titles as I personally struggle to find “job titles”
Nothing needs to be changed (17% of comments)
 Nothing as completing this module was helpful in my career planning.
 I enjoyed this module and I can’t think of any changes that would improve the design of the
module
Plans to conduct informational interviews
When students were asked to provide their level of agreement using a 5-point Likert scale (‘strongly
disagree’, ‘disagree’, ‘neutral’, ‘agree’, ‘strongly agree’) with the statement ‘I will conduct more
informational interviews outside of my official studies’, 69.3% of students agreed or strongly agreed
with the statement, 28.4% chose neutral, and 2.3% disagreed (N=88). These results indicate that
most students found the informational interview to be an authentic and useful career development
tool that allowed them to gain insights into one’s career path. Further, the findings suggest that
students believe that their insights can be deepened by conducting more interviews in the future.
Discussion
The main findings of this study showed that upon completion of the module most students had a
good idea of their future career or had already made the decision and had a plan on how to achieve
their career goals. A range of quantitative and qualitative data indicates that students were
overwhelmingly of the opinion that the informational interview module promoted knowledge and
skill development that would be useful for their future career development and planning. A majority
of students wished to pursue a career in a health field and were more interested in the career path
post interview. Overall, students had a positive experience conducting the informational interview,
and planned to conduct more informational interviews in the future outside of official studies. Postinterview, most students, were interacting with professionals in the field they wished to enter and
were relatively confident with their knowledge of the profession and ability to conduct and review
an informational interview.
Career paths and career identity
Decision making related to career plan
Lock and Kelly (2020) found that most students who were about to begin non-specialist degrees
demonstrated limited knowledge of the career outcomes related to their respective courses. Choate
and Long (2019) reported that 26-28% of second year physiology students in a non-specialist
Lexis, L., Thomas, J., Taylor, C.J., Church, J.E., & Julien, B.L. (2021). Informational interviews help undergraduate students at the mid-point
of non-specialist STEM degrees confirm their career aspiration. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 12(2), 299–
315.
309
Bachelor of Science degree were undecided or uncertain about their careers. In the present study,
only 12.5% of students fell into this category, with 53% having a good idea of their future career, and
34% knowing what they want to do, with a plan on how to get there. The findings of this study
indicate that the student cohort was reasonably well established in their journey of developing a
career identity at the mid-point of their degree, as most students (88%) had a good idea of their
future career or had already made the decision and had a plan on how to achieve their career goals.
The cohorts in the studies by Lock and Kelly (2020) and Choate and Long (2019) had not yet engaged
in CDL which may explain the more advanced career plans reported in this study. These findings
provide support for using an informational interview module to develop students’ career plans, and
is consistent with the recommendation of Bridgstock et al. (2019) that early access to CDL that is
integrated into degree programs builds student understandings of possible career trajectories and
supports the development of realistic career identities.
Preferred career paths
Across the cohort, students wished to pursue a range of career paths including those in allied health,
medicine, dentistry, nursing, science, and the sport science and fitness industry. Of those students
wishing to pursue a career in allied health, physiotherapy was the most popular. These choices are
not surprising, given the cohorts of students who engaged with the module (Health Sciences 43%;
Biomedicine 22%; Sport and Exercise Science 31%; other 4%). These findings are in general
agreement with unpublished internal data from Michigan State University and the University of
Arizona consistently indicating that 90% of physiology students aspire to a career in the healthcare
field, although a greater percentage wished to pursue medicine (60%) (Steele, VanRyn, Stanescu,
Rogers, & Wehrwein, 2020). Similar to the results of this study, Choate and Long (2019) reported
that 23-25% of second year physiology students in a non-specialist Bachelor of Science degree
intended to pursue a career in medicine. Only 8-9% wanted to pursue a career in allied health
(Choate & Long, 2019), which is noticeably lower than the present study, showing close to 50% of
students wanting to pursue a career in this field. Although an explanation for these differences has
not been confirmed, it may be due to different students being attracted to a Bachelor of Science
versus the degree types studied in this paper, as well as the types of career and postgraduate
pathways that are marketed and promoted to students from within these degree structures.
Level of interest in career post interview
After indicating their career choice early in the module, students prepared for and conducted an
informational interview with a professional in that field. Upon completion of the module, no
students were less interested in their chosen career path, 26% had not changed their mind, and 74%
were either more interested or much more interested in pursuing the career path. Through the
interview, students learned about the interviewees’ career path, including challenges. They also
gained inside knowledge of the career and industry such as a typical day, average hours worked and
the current and projected future state of the industry. It appears that these insights influenced and
motivated students, strengthening their commitment to their chosen career path, and further
developing their career identity. Indeed, a theme emerging from the open-ended question regarding
students’ initial impression of the interview was that it facilitated learning about a career path in
detail, highlighted in the student quote:
…I was able to obtain detailed information about the requirements of an occupational
therapist and I am now more interested in pursuing this career path.
These results are in agreement with Decarie (2010) who reported that students were excited about
their future careers after completing an informational interview assignment. When comparing the
findings of the present study to Plakhotnik’s (2017), both similarities and differences exist. In
agreement with this study, 74% (60 second-year human resource management students in
Lexis, L., Thomas, J., Taylor, C.J., Church, J.E., & Julien, B.L. (2021). Informational interviews help undergraduate students at the mid-point
of non-specialist STEM degrees confirm their career aspiration. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 12(2), 299–
315.
310
Plakhotnik’s study) decided to continue pursuing a career in the chosen company or industry after
completion of the informational interview assignment. In contrast to the findings of this study, 26%
of the students said they would not continue their pursuit of a career in the chosen company or
industry. Given that the goal of an informational interview is to develop a realistic understanding of
what a career entails, the fact that students changed their mind about career choices in the study by
Plakhotnik (2017) indicates that student learning took place, with informed decisions made to
further explore other suitable career options. Compared to this research, students in the study by
Plakhotnik (2017) may have been less knowledgeable regarding the careers as they embarked on the
assignment, and realised through their exploration and learnings that the career didn’t align with
their future aspirations.
Professional network
In the present study, the majority of students (73%) were interacting with between 1 and 5
professionals in the field they wished to enter. Pleasingly, over 10% were interacting with 6 or more
professionals in the field, but worryingly 9% were not interacting with any. The size of one’s
professional network is an indicator of connectedness capabilities, which include developing social
network literacy, and growing, strengthening, maintaining, and working with professional
connections (Bridgstock, 2016). Developing meaningful connections with professionals helps
individuals develop their career identity (Bridgstock, 2016; Fugate et al., 2004; Meijers, 1998;
Tomlinson, 2017). Most students were interacting with professionals in the field they wished to
enter, indicating that they were in the process of establishing their connectedness capabilities
(Bridgstock, 2016). The informational interview is an important CDL tool that can help students
develop this capability. One of the themes emerging from open-ended responses regarding the
helpfulness of the module was the importance of the informational interview in supporting students
to make professional connections:
…the process required me to learn to make connections with people and the benefits of
making connections. It taught me to be more professional, to put myself out there more and
to not be afraid to ask for help or for more information.
These results suggest that students will have the confidence to continue to build and strengthen
their professional connections beyond the boundaries of the assessed module. Indeed, another
theme emerging from the open-ended responses on the helpfulness of the module was that it was
inspirational and confidence building:
By getting me to talk to people in the field and answer the questions posed, the module has
eased a lot of my nerves and has made me realise how achievable my goals are if I really try
my best.
Some students realised that they needed to take more responsibility for using career adaptive
behaviours to further their career identity and this involved conducting more interviews. This was
the most common theme arising from the open-ended question asking about changes that could
better support students’ career planning. Students commented:
I could be more proactive in seeking out more of these interviews with professionals in the
field I’m interested in”, and “I could attempt to reach out to more people in the field and
form a strong network to kickstart my career in the field.
These data may explain why 69% of students planned to conduct informational interviews in the
future outside of official studies and shows that students place value on the informational interview
as an authentic career development tool.
Lexis, L., Thomas, J., Taylor, C.J., Church, J.E., & Julien, B.L. (2021). Informational interviews help undergraduate students at the mid-point
of non-specialist STEM degrees confirm their career aspiration. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 12(2), 299–
315.
311
Perceived knowledge and skills
Students’ perceptions of their knowledge of what a professional does in the field they wish to enter,
along with their perceived ability to research a career of interest, and analyse and evaluate their
findings are integral components to building a career identity (Fugate et al., 2004; Meijers, 1998;
Tomlinson, 2017). On completion of the module, over 80% of students rated their knowledge of
what a professional does in the field as ‘excellent’ or ‘good’, and this was supported by qualitative
data. The most common theme emerging from the open-ended question regarding the most helpful
aspects of the module was that students gained career insights and advice regarding their career
planning. Students were given deeper insights into a career and a step-by-step idea on how to go
about entering the field and it was useful for them to learn about the daily workings of professionals.
Collectively, these data indicate that the informational interview was influential in students’ learning
about what a professional does in the field they wish to enter. The informational interview module
required students to research a career of interest as they prepared for and conducted the interview.
Students were required to rate their ability to conduct an interview, as well as their ability to analyse
and evaluate the interview. Over 60% of students rated themselves as ‘excellent’ or ‘good’, showing
that most students had high self-confidence with these tasks. The vast majority of other students
rated their ability as fair, indicating less confidence, which is not surprising given that this was most
likely a new experience for most students.
Interview experience
Most students (95%) in the present study indicated that the interview experience was positive
(rating between 7 and 10). Qualitative analysis provides additional data that gives insight into why
this was the case. The two themes emerging from the data show that transformative student
learning about the career and industry, along with helpful interviewee attributes created the
positive experience. This is reflected in the following student quotes:
I thoroughly enjoyed the interview. It was a really beneficial experience to learn from
someone well-versed and knowledgeable about the industry I want to enter, and occupation
I want to undertake
My interviewee was very nice and friendly and encouraging…I also felt very comfortable
talking to her which I felt was important as it meant I enjoyed my interview with her.
These findings are in agreement with Mackey and Courtright (2012) who showed via thematic
analysis of criminal justice and social science student reflections that the most commonly occurring
theme was that the interview was a rewarding experience. In the present study, thematic analysis
revealed that 31% of positive comments (32 comments) related to the disposition of the interviewee
(polite, willing to share story, amazing), and is consistent with other studies (Mackey & Courtright,
2012; Plakhotnik, 2017). Mackey and Courtright (2012) suggest that the comments may reflect the
apprehension some students initially had with the assignment. Indeed, in the present study, 23% of
students indicated that they experienced a feeling of nervousness or awkwardness at some stage
during the interview. Plakhotnik (2017) asked students what surprised them the most about the
informational interview assignment, and consistent with the findings of this study, 35% commented
on how difficult it was to take the interview with statements such as, I was surprised that I was
brave enough to conduct the interview and I am glad I survived the interview (p. 7). In the present
study, 63% of negative comments (15 comments) related to interview issues such as running out of
time and having to adapt to virtual meeting technology. In response to the COVID-19 pandemic,
students and professionals have become more accustomed to communicating via virtual meeting
technologies such as Zoom and Microsoft Teams. This opens new opportunities for students to
conduct informational interviews with a greater range of professionals as they are not bound by
location or time zone. Twenty-five percent of negative comments (6 comments) related to the
Lexis, L., Thomas, J., Taylor, C.J., Church, J.E., & Julien, B.L. (2021). Informational interviews help undergraduate students at the mid-point
of non-specialist STEM degrees confirm their career aspiration. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 12(2), 299–
315.
312
interviewee, such as speaking too fast, or having to reschedule. Similarly, Plakhotnik (2017) reported
that students were frustrated when an interview had to be postponed, and when the interviewee
was late or joked during the interview.
Student perceptions of the module
The quantitative analysis in this study shows that students believed completion of the module
improved their understanding of what a professional does in the field they wish to enter, as well as
the state of the industry. This improved, realistic understanding will allow students to make more
informed decisions about their career path (Crosby, 2010; Lindsey & Barker, n.d.). Most students
thought that they had gained knowledge and skills that would be useful for their future career
development and planning. Qualitative thematic analysis shows that the module: provided insight
into a career and helped with career planning (65% of comments); provided inspiration and
confidence (15% of comments); promoted understanding of the purpose of informational interviews
(10% of comments); and helped with making professional connections (8% of comments). These
results are supported by findings from other studies investigating student perceptions of an
informational interview assignment. Mackey and Courtright (2012) showed via thematic analysis of
criminal justice and social science student reflections post-interview that the second most common
theme was the benefit for career selection and preparation. Similarly, Plakhotnik (2017) showed
through analysis of 89 surveys that human resource management students thought they had learned
more about the profession of a manager and gained an insight into careers in the field. Lun (2020)
showed through analysis of 23 student surveys that human services students thought an
informational interview assignment helped them develop an understanding of the field. Taken
together, findings from studies investigating the impact of informational interview assignments
overwhelmingly indicate that the career development tool is valuable for undergraduate students’
career development and planning.
Future research
Two students in the study mentioned that connecting with alumni and current students in
postgraduate courses they were interested in applying to could provide useful insight into their
career planning. Bridgstock’s (2016) connectedness learning model describes alumni engagement
and student partnerships as connectedness pedagogies that support students in developing their
connectedness capabilities. There exists an opportunity to incorporate these elements into the
module, and conduct further research on the benefits. A theme emerging from the open-ended
responses on practical changes that could assist career planning is the provision of more career
options guidance, such as more resources on specific job titles as I personally struggle to find job
titles. It is not surprising that students struggle with this, given the vast array of careers that students
move into. Relevant resources tend to be scattered across various platforms and are not easily
located by students who often don’t know what they are looking for or how to search appropriately.
A purposefully designed career options resource that supports students in non-specialist healthrelated STEM degrees to understand the details of a range of possible careers could assist students
with their initial decision making regarding their preferred career path. This would ideally occur prior
to students engaging in informational interviews. Therefore, research that focuses on the
development, implementation, and evaluation of such a resource would add to the current
knowledge on CDL.
Summary
To the researchers’ knowledge, this paper describes the first in-depth evaluation of an informational
interview assessment introduced into the curriculum of STEM non-specialist health-related degrees.
Lexis, L., Thomas, J., Taylor, C.J., Church, J.E., & Julien, B.L. (2021). Informational interviews help undergraduate students at the mid-point
of non-specialist STEM degrees confirm their career aspiration. Journal of Teaching and Learning for Graduate Employability, 12(2), 299–
315.
313
The study demonstrates that most students had a positive experience conducting an informational
interview, and the interview contributed to the development of a realistic career identity. Students
felt that the module facilitated detailed learning about a career and the state of the industry, as well
as skills related to researching a career and building professional connections. Post-interview,
students were confident in their knowledge of the profession and are therefore likely to make better
decisions about their career path. The results are consistent with others from non-STEM disciplines
and support the approach of embedding CDL into the curriculum. Educators across STEM disciplines
are encouraged to incorporate an informational interview assignment into their curriculum. The
model described in this paper is scalable and could be adopted across a range of degree programs, in
particular, in non-specialist degree programs with large student numbers, and contributes to the
development of career-ready graduates that are equipped for the challenges of the 21st century.
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The International Journal of Management Education 15 (2017) 1e10
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
The International Journal of Management Education
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijme
Research Notes
Using the informational interview to get an insight into the
profession of a manager
Maria S. Plakhotnik
National Research University Higher School of Economics, Russia
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 2 September 2016
Received in revised form 2 February 2017
Accepted 2 February 2017
Available online 1 March 2017
An informational interview, also known as the exploratory meeting or networking interview, “is a chance to pick someone’s brain about a profession, business, or industry”
(Decarie, 2010, p. 306). The purpose of the study was to explore whether, when modified,
this assignment could benefit second-year management education students in understanding of the profession of a manager. This assignment provides students an opportunity
to interact with a professional in a business setting on a variety of topics that help students
understand what it is like to work in this industry, type of company, or a position. While
informational interviews have been used in communication courses in management education programs, nothing is known about the use or usefulness of this assignment in
other management courses. One hundred eleven students in a human resource management course were asked to complete a modified version of the informational interview
assignment. Data were collected using a survey from 89 students. The results show that
overall students learned more about the profession of a manager and got an insight into
careers in the chosen industries and companies. Implications for teaching are provided
along with the discussion of each main result.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Exploratory meeting
Networking interview
Undergraduate students
Teaching method
1. Introduction
Introductory management courses are foundation stones in undergraduate business curriculum (Thompson, Purdy, &
Fandt, 1997). They aim at providing basic knowledge of the field while expertise in different areas of management is
further developed in advanced management courses (Swenson, 2001). These courses serve to “heighten awareness of the
complexity of what occurs when humans are engaged in the accomplishment of tasks in an organization” (Krell & Dobson,
1999, p. 44). These courses also communicate to students the idea that management as a field of practice is informed by
theory (Wright & Gilmore, 2012). In other words, these courses include threshold concepts, which might be hard for students
to grasp at first, but which are essential for their successful completion of other courses in the program.
One of the challenges that instructors in these introductory courses face is that traditional business and management
education students usually have very little exposure to how organizations work. These students have little work experience
(Finan, 2004) and struggle to connect theory with their own experiences within organizations (Miller, 1991). The more
experience students have, the easier it becomes to understand course material, grasp concepts and theories, make connections among them, and make decisions. Not surprisingly, non-traditional students who come to get their business degrees
E-mail address: mplakhotnik@hse.ru.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2017.02.002
1472-8117/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2
M.S. Plakhotnik / The International Journal of Management Education 15 (2017) 1e10
after spending years working “seem to have almost an intuitive understanding of how business organizations work, who the
‘players’ are, and how individuals interact in business organizations” (Roth, 2001, p. 22).
“Management certainly applies science: managers have to use all the knowledge they can get, from the sciences and
elsewhere. But management is more art, based on ‘insight’, ‘vision’, ‘intuition’” (Mintzberg, 2004, p. 10). Not surprisingly,
management positions are difficult to fill (Society for Human Resource Management [SHRM], 2016). Over 60% of HR managers
experience difficulties in hiring candidates for full-time managerial positions in general (SHRM, 2016), and 74% of HR
managers experience difficulties in hiring recent graduates for these positions (SHRM, 2015a). Once hired as low-level or
front-line managers, recent graduates work on the frontline of the organization “where the organization interacts with its
customers and suppliers, and confronts the realities and challenges of competition” (Fleming, 2008, p. 128). They become
responsible for the performance of a team (Austin, Regan, Gothard, & Carnochan, 2013; Hill, 1992), enacting organizational
policies, providing organizational leadership for their teams, and coaching each individual team member (Kilroy & Dundon,
2015).
To enhance student learning, instructors have to utilize different techniques “that actively engage students in learning to
think and do” in their courses (Hallinger & Bridges, 2007, p. 6). These techniques have to help students contextualize the
knowledge they learn in the classroom, deepen and expand their prior knowledge, connect their prior experiences with the
course concepts and theories, and prepare students to solve real-live problems on the job in the future (Finan, 2004). A
number of teaching and/or curriculum techniques have been suggested in the recent past, including commercial movies
(Roth, 2001), student-generated thought-provoking questions (Chaves, 2016), magic (Krell & Dobson, 1999), the flipped
classroom model (Albert & Beatty, 2014), service-learning projects (Flannery & Pragman, 2010), concrescent conversations
(Akan, 2005), and collage construction (Colakoglu & Littlefield, 2011), among others.
As an instructor of a human resource management course taught to a second-year traditional full-time undergraduate
students in a management program, I have to teach the basic concepts of and approaches to people management to students
who have little to no experience with organizations, work teams, managers, strategies, and complexities of the workplace.
Most students have never worked, went through a selection process, reported to a manager, got evaluated, paid, terminated,
or even written a resume. They take their first two-week internship required by the program after the completion of the
course. To help students get a snapshot at a profession of a manager and an insight on the art of management (Mintzberg,
2004) from a manager, I decided to include an informational interview assignment. The informational interview, also
known as the exploratory meeting or networking interview, “is a chance to pick someone’s brain about a profession, business,
or industry” (Decarie, 2010, p. 306). This assignment provides students with an opportunity to interact with a professional in a
business setting on a variety of topics that help students understand what it is like to work in this industry, type of company,
or a position. Informational interviews were coined and popularized by Richard Bolles (1972) and have become a popular
career development tool in the past 40 years. As a career development tool, informational interviews are also used by human
resource development professionals to assist employees with the exploration of their possible career tracks in the organization (e.g., Author, 2011). In educational settings, informational interviews have been used by career counselors (Mitchell,
Levin, & Krumboltz, 1999). For example, informational interviews are used in a foster care system to help teens plan their
educational and professional lives and, therefore, become ready to leave the system and successfully integrate into the society
(Krebs & Pitcoff, 2004). In higher education, informational interviews are discussed primarily in the context of general
communication and business communication classes, along with writing resumes and cover letters, networking, and mock
interviews (e.g., Addams & Allred, 2015; Croft, 1995; Decarie, 2010; Mulvaney, 2003). While informational interviews have
been used in communication courses in management education programs, nothing is known about the use or usefulness of
this assignment in other management courses. If this assignment is so successful in business communication courses, should
other instructors try to incorporate it in their courses? The purpose of the study was to explore whether, when modified, this
assignment could benefit second-year management education students in understanding of the profession of a manager.
2. Informational interviews
2.1. The purpose and the summary
All interviews aim at gathering information. The type of information gathered depends on the type of interview chosen.
Informational interview is a tool to find out more about a career in a company or an industry or in a position from somebody
who has established themselves there (Scott, 2015). “Informational interviews are, very simply, opportunities for students to
have conversations with people who can serve as models for the students’ futures, in this case business professionals”
(Decarie, 2010, p. 306). During the 20e30-min interview, the student can ask a wide range of questions related to skills and
demands of the chosen career field as well as duties and responsibilities (Croft, 1995). Being open-ended, informational
interviews “provide a framework within which respondents can express their own understandings in their own terms”
(Patton, 2002, p. 348). Therefore, students can receive first-hand information about the company, industry, or profession from
experienced professionals as well as their perspectives on issues that arise in their professional practice. Bolles (2016) distinguishes three types of interviews in the context of a career exploration: practice, informational, and job interviews. During
a practice interview, one learns to interview people by simply interviewing them about anything. Informational interview
“involves interviewing workers who are doing work a person thinks they might be interested in doing, in order to discover if
they are on the right tracks” (Bolles, 2016, p. 17). Informational interview should not be confused with a job interview. “The
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3
purpose of a job interview is to get a job, whereas the purpose of an informational interview is to get information” (Mikelat,
2008, p. 2). A job interview is done by a potential employer to find out whether the job candidate matches expectations of the
employer (Bolles, 2016).
As an assignment, the informational interview is usually divided into three steps. First, in the pre-interview step students receive instruction about the assignment (i.e., purpose, process, evaluation, and deadlines). Students need to identify
an industry, profession, or organization where they would like to work in the future. Sometimes for this assignment students have to pick one out of several they are considering. Students can also consult career counselors to discuss possible
career paths for them and take a career guidance test (Crosby, 2002). At this step, instructors also discuss how to find,
contact, and interact with an interviewee and how to dress and behave during the interview. Students in groups, individually, or as a class create interview questions. During the interview itself, students interact with the interviewee,
preferably in-person, at the interviewee’s workplace and during the interviewee’s work hours (Mulvaney, 2003), which
would provide students more authentic experience with the person and the organization. Informational interviews become
more useful when used in an area that hosts a variety of organizations to meet students’ diverse interests (Croft, 1995). At
the same time, interviews could be conducted using online tools, like Skype, if the management education program is
located in a remote area or if the expert to be interviewed is located in a distant city or country. Students could be asked to
conduct one or several interviews with the same or different people. Interviews with the same person are done over long
periods of time to obtain further information and receive an explanation, a clarification, and support as the student explores
a possible career by other means (Krebs & Pitcoff, 2004). Interviews with several people simply provide the student more
information around the same issues (Croft, 1995). Students are asked to document their conversation in some way (e.g.,
taking notes or audiotaping). Students could be given additional instructions based on the purpose of the assignment. For
example, students could be asked to monitor the interviewee’s non-verbal communication clues if the assignment is a part
of a communications class (Mulvaney, 2003). In the last, reporting, step of the assignment, students are asked to present in
an oral or written, or both, forms the results of their interview. When doing short speeches in front of the class, students
practice their oral communication skills. Such form of reporting also enables all students in the class to hear about many
career options (Mulvaney, 2003). When doing written reports, students practice their writing and editing skills and serve as
peer-reviewers. They could also report in some genre of written communication, such as an executive summary (Mulvaney,
2003). Depending on the goals of the class and of the assignment, instructors could modify reporting forms to benefit
student learning.
Ultimately, the students either confirm their desire to pursue a career in a certain industry, profession, or organization or
“discover their dream job isn’t so dreamy after all” (Crosby, 2002, p. 32). Regardless of the outcome, students should try other
tools to explore their career options.
2.2. The advantages
The primary outcome of this assignment is that students become more aware of their career options. The assignment also
helps decrease certain anxiety young people have about starting a career or getting access to an organization (Crosby, 2002)
and increase their self-confidence as young professionals (Booth, 1994; Sheppard, 1989). However, informational interviews
have other advantages, which could benefit students in the introductory management courses. Informational interviews
create opportunities for “planned happenstance” (Mitchell et al., 1999, p. 116) or other events that could impact student
careers. The assignment gives students opportunities be proactive and take charge of circumstances to be able to “generate
and be receptive of chance opportunities” (p. 117). For example, while waiting for the interviewee, students might have a
chance to talk to other employees and read some company pamphlets or informational boards. Interviewees might be willing
to answer additional questions or even show around the building. Follow-up communication could help establish relationship with the interviewee and might lead to an internship in that company or create a source for data collection for a term
paper or a thesis.
Informational interviews help students develop their interpersonal, relationship-building, or soft skills, which have been
identified among top three skills college graduates lack but should have to be successful in the today’s workplace (Mitchell,
Skinner, & White, 2010; SHRM, 2015b). These soft skills include “confidence, adaptability, the ability to set and keep deadlines, the ability to manage risk, and so on” (Decarie, 2010, p. 306). Because they require preparation and structure, informational interviews give students opportunities to interact with professionals as professionals, with adults as adults (Decarie,
2010). Informational interviews are rather short, so students have to be prepared and use the time wisely to extract as much
useful information by the interview and observation as possible. This is particularly useful for young adults during their first
and second year of undergraduate education because they can meet and interact with professionals who can serve as role
models for the students.
Informational interviews help students be self-directed and depend less on the program and the professor in terms of the
knowledge received. Dyllick (2010) argues that management education programs too often limit students’ opportunities to
identify “developmental areas” (p. xi) and engage in activities that help them achieve their goals. However, this assignment
enables students identify knowledge, skills, and experiences they should acquire to land a job of their dream or progress in
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their careers. Informational interviews have been reported to help students improve their writing, editing, and interviewing
skills (Decarie, 2010) as well as research and critical thinking skills (Booth, 1994; Sheppard, 1989).
The informational interview assignment is also an activity that helps address the needs of the emergent adult management student (Dachner & Polin, 2016) because the assignment incorporates six principles of adult learning (Knowles, 1970).
Table 1 shows connections between the principles of adult learning and the informational interview assignment.
The assignment is focused on students’ possible careers in the future and, hence, motivates students to learn. The
assignment could shed some light on what knowledge, skills, and experiences students need to learn to get the desired jobs,
showing the gap they need to close. For example, Orr, Sherony, and Steinhaus (2011) surveyed employers who were interviewees in the informational interview assignment. These employers pointed to several skills that students needed to
improve to increase their chances of employment in the future, including “proper eye contact, using good posture, and using
appropriate facial expressions and gestures … developing skilled, well thought-out questions and asking the right number of
questions … [and] being well groomed and appropriately dressed” (p. 30). Students actively participate in all three steps of
the assignment, so students learn by doing. Students incorporate their prior knowledge and experiences when constructing
the interview guide, conducting the interview, and presenting the results in a written or oral format. By participating in all
three steps of the assignment, students are engaged in the four components of experiential learning, such as “experiencing,
reflecting, thinking, and acting” (Kolb & Kolb, 2005, p. 194). In other words, they gain experience in constructing an interview
guide and interviewing a professional, reflecting on these two processes, thinking about the desired possible career paths and
the profession of a manager after the interviews, and making decisions about whether to pursue a possible career and about
knowledge, skills, and experiences they should gain to increase their chances of getting a desired job. Although interviews
should take place at the interviewees’ workplace, which could be considered a formal situation, they take place outside of the
classroom and without the instructor and could be regarded as informal learning (Marsick & Watkins, 2001). Informal
learning may be structured or unstructured, unintended and incidental, or part of a planned activity, and is generally
considered to be in the control of the learner (Marsick, Watkins, Callahan, & Volpe, 2009). Although the informational
interview is an assignment that is guided by an interview guide, the execution of this assignment has a great degree of
informal learning where students learn outside the formal classroom and control many aspects of the assignment (e.g., who
to interview, how to approach the interviewee, what additional questions to ask, or how to carry themselves during the
interview).
Next, the activity is also based on the ideas that knowledge comes from a variety of sources and exposure to many
sources during a course benefits student understanding of the course material. Learning that is limited to listening to a
lecture or reading a course textbook is insufficient in preparing students to the demands of today’s workforce (e.g., Madsen
& Turnbull, 2006). College courses have to incorporate activities that enable students “to connect the readings, class discussions, and other assignments with the real world, full of real people, with real problems that students try to help solve”
(Bush-Bacelis, 1998, p. 27). Informational interviews are also based on the assumption that the most current information
about a job or an organization comes from people who do that job or work for that organization, and not from books or the
Internet (Bolles, 2016). Therefore, informational interviews expose students to another source of information, an employee,
in a managerial or non-managerial position, in addition to the textbook, lectures, seminars, other readings, and the
instructor.
Importantly, informational interviews are also a career development technique used by training and development
professionals in organizations to assist employees in their exploration of possible career paths within the organization (e.g.,
Author 2011). Therefore, students have an opportunity to experience a training and development technique, which most
likely is discussed in their human resource management course usually included in the core undergraduate curriculum. The
instructor can modify the assignment to make it more useful for the class. For example, the interview guide could have
additional questions about how the interviewee communicates with his or her subordinates or superiors, motivates his or
her team, makes decisions, or solves problems. Due to these advantages, the informational interview assignment is one of
the most exciting and eye-opening assignments that students who only begin to entertain ideas about their careers enjoy.
The informational interview almost always “becomes the most popular assignment of the semester” (Mulvaney, 2003,
p. 70).
Table 1
Connections between the principles of adult learning and the informational interview assignment.
Principles of adult learning
Aspects of the assignment
1
2
Adults must want to learn.
Adults will learn only what they feel they need to learn.
3
4
5
Adults learn by doing.
Adult learning focuses on problems and the problems must
be realistic.
Experience affects adult learning.
6
Adults learn best in an informal situation.
The assignment focuses on students’ future careers.
The obtained information shows the student what they need to do to get
the desired job.
Students actively participate in all three steps of the assignment.
The assignment focuses on students’ future careers and helps identify
developmental areas.
Student experiences, class discussions, and course readings are incorporated
in all three steps of the assignment.
Interview takes place outside the classroom and without the instructor.
M.S. Plakhotnik / The International Journal of Management Education 15 (2017) 1e10
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3. The modified informational interview assignment
3.1. The setting and the participants
The informational interview assignment was included in the course Human Resource Management taught to 2nd year
undergraduate students in a management program. The course followed a three-quarter long Introduction to Management
course, which students took during their first year, and an Organizational Theory course, which students took during the first
semester of their second year. The management program is provided by a large independent research university in the
Russian Federation. Due to the university internalization efforts, the course is taught fully in English. For all students taking
the class, English was a second language. Out of 111 students listed in the class roster, 89 were present during the data
collection. About 60% of these students were female and 40% male. All students were studying full-time and came to the
program right after graduating from high school.
3.2. Description of the assignment
Because students had a rather vague understanding of the role of a manager, the informational interview activity was
modified. The purpose of this activity became to provide students an opportunity to get a snapshot of everyday tasks and
main functions of a manager who works in the industry or type of company or company where the student would like to work
in the future. Therefore, the objective of the activity was two-fold: (1) to learn about the managerial role and functions from a
manager and (2) to learn insights potentially useful for students’ career choices. Implementation of the activity consisted of
three steps.
3.2.1. Step 1: the introduction of the assignment
I introduced the assignment to the students during a seminar by placing information about the activity on a handout and
projecting it on the screen so that everybody could see what was being discussed. The activity was introduced after the
students discussed readings for the course unit “Management and Leadership.” Students were introduced to the assignment
five weeks before the deadline to allow sufficient time for students to identify the person and conduct the interview. The
students were asked to identify a person who meets two conditions: (a) was working in the industry or type of company or
company where the student would like to work in the future and (b) had supervised a team of at least five people for at least
one year or had been a leader (top management, owner) who had had a leadership position for at least three years. They were
also asked to set a 15e30 min (phone, skype, or face-to-face) conversation with him/her. The students were instructed that
their interviewees might be reluctant to reveal their names and the name of the organization to others. The students were
advised on how to deal with confidentiality; other instructors using this approach need to abide by protocols and professional
ethical standards of their teaching institutions.
3.2.2. Step 2: the creation of the interview template
During a seminar, two weeks after the assignment was introduced, the students with my guidance created an interview
template. First, the students worked in small groups and generated a list of questions they wished to ask. When students are
asked to create their own questions, they usually get more engaged in their learning, which enhances their ability to ask
smart, relevant questions (Broggy, 2011). They also become more interested in the material (Nardone & Lee, 2011) and learn
the material better (Berry & Chew, 2008). In this process, students also use their higher-order thinking skills by analyzing
information, making connections between concepts, and synthesizing all information into their own questions (Ciardiello,
1998). Then, each group was asked to choose top two questions from the list. Then, each small group stated their questions, and I typed them up on a computer, projecting the list on the screen. The students were asked not to repeat questions
that had been suggested by previous small groups. Because the class (111 students) was divided into four groups of 26e28
students, I repeated this process with each of the four groups. After the process was completed with all four groups, I
examined the list of questions and created a template. The template was divided into required questions for everyone to ask
and additional optional questions to be asked if time allowed and if the student and the interviewee wanted to continue their
conversation. The students were encouraged to add other questions. The template was emailed to the students. The students
were given four weeks to complete the assignment.
3.2.3. Step 3: the discussion
The discussion took place during two seminars. First, the students were divided into groups depending on the industry or
company type where the interviews took place and where they would like to work in the future (e.g., education and social
services, entertainment, IT, hospitality, sales, and logistics and production). Then, in groups, they are asked to create two
composite profiles: (a) a composite profile of what it is like to be a manager in the industry or company type where the
students would like to work in the future and (b) a composite profile of what is it like to have a career in this industry or
company. The creation of these profiles included further learning about the topics from their peers and an analysis and
synthesis of the material, which fit the exploratory nature of the assignment. The creation of these profiles also allowed the
students to be creative and made the learning process interesting and fun. The students presented the profiles using the
board.
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3.3. Data collection
To collect data about the usefulness of the assignment and make changes to improve the assignment in the future, survey
research was used. A survey “provides a quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes, or opinions” of a population
sample (Creswell, 2009, p. 234). The students were asked to complete an Informational Interview Evaluation Questionnaire
that consisted of three parts. Part One asked about five “points of learning” that this assignment targeted the most. The last,
point number 6, was left open to the students as “Other”. The students were asked to evaluate the usefulness of this activity to
them on the scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Part Two asked whether after completing the assignment, they
would continue their pursuit of the career in the chosen industry or company and why. Part Three used Brookfield’s (1995)
Critical Incident Questionnaire to understand what aspect(s) of the assignment from the moment it was introduced to the
presentations got the students engaged and distanced and was the most helpful, puzzling, and surprising. The Questionnaire
is a qualitative tool that could assist instructors in exploring “how students are experiencing their learning and your [instructors’] teaching” (Brookfield, 2006, p. 41). The data collected by the Questionnaire helps instructors see the classroom
through the students’ eyes, reflect on their teaching, and improve their instruction (Brookfield, 1995). Since its introduction,
the instrument has been used in adult and higher education classroom in face-to-face and on-line formats (e.g., Gilstrap &
Dupree, 2008; Glowacki-Dudka & Barnett, 2007; Phelan, 2012).
4. Results
The results of Part One of the Questionnaire show that overall students found this assignment useful (see Table 2). The
average score was the highest (4.1) for the first point of learning. Four other points of learning had the average score of 4.0.
Only four students provided answers to the last open-ended point. These students indicated that this assignment helped
them improve their communication skills, understand main difficulties, “talk to experienced managers and become
encouraged by them”, and “understand what I should do to become a manager in my field”.
Part Two of the Questionnaire asked the students whether after completing the assignment, they would continue their
pursuit of a career in the chosen industry or company and why. Out of 89 students, 60 (74%) decided to continue pursuing a
career in the chosen company or industry (see Table 3).
These students responded that what they learned either confirmed what they had expected or made them even more
interested in the company/industry:
“It really helped me better understand this field; I am not disappointed and ready to continue.”
“I got more information about this industry, which is interesting for me, and now I know what I need to do to be more
competitive to get a job in this industry.”
“I have been interested in working in this industry for a long time and doing this assignment helped me understand
that it is the right one for me.”
“It is mostly like I expected it to be.”
“This assignment helped me discover new sides of the industry. Now I am interested in this industry even more.”
Out of 89 students, 29 (26%) responded they would not continue their pursuit of a career in the chosen industry or
company. Twenty-one students provided reasons for changing their minds about the pursuit of the job/industry. For example,
five students realized that they wanted to have a job that would allow them to be more creative:
“I prefer creating a new product and not work at a production factory.”
“I would prefer to become a journalist rather than a manager at a publishing house.”
“I would like to have a job that gives me more freedom, something more creative.”
“I would like to have my own company, rather than work for somebody.”
Another eight students did not like the overall impression of the job itself, finding it “stressful,” “boring,” with “too much
routine and repetitive tasks.” As one student stated, “I have understood that work in the office is not for me: You have to face
the same routine every day, and it’s kind of boring.” Another student explained, “You have to spend decades working as a rat
Table 2
Results of part 1 of the informational interview evaluation questionnaire.
1
2
3
4
5
Points of learning
Average score
Have a better idea of what it is like to work in this company/industry
Understand the role of the manager
Understand the daily routine of a manager
Have a snapshot of a career in this industry/company
Think about my career in general
4.1
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
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Table 3
Results of part 2 of the informational interview evaluation questionnaire.
Decision on the pursuit of the career
n
Continue the pursuit of the career
Not continue the pursuit of the career
Provided reasons:
Want to have a more creative job
Did not like the overall impression of the job
Prefer a more people-oriented job
Prefer a less people-oriented job
Do not have technical knowledge
Provided no reason
60
29
21
5
8
2
3
3
8
in the office. I am not ready for this.” Two more students realized that the job was not as people-oriented as they wished,
while three other students preferred not to deal with people a lot on their job. Three other students changed their minds
about the company because they found out that they had to have technical knowledge (e.g., chemistry, physics) to succeed in
the company.
Eight students did not provide specific reasons for changing their minds:
“In my mind, this job looked a bit different and it is not as positive as I had thought.”
“The activity helped me understand the industry that I was interested in, but I changed my mind after that.”
“I absolutely understand that it is not my job, not my industry. But I would like to add that now I know more about the
role of a manager in this industry.” One student changed his/her mind because he/she “liked more what other students
told about their companies.”
Part Three of the Questionnaire used Brookfield’s (1995) Critical Incident Questionnaire to understand what aspect(s) of
the assignment from the moment it was introduced to the presentations got students engaged and distanced and was the
most helpful, puzzling, and surprising (see Table 4).
Not surprisingly, the students reported being engaged the most during the interview (81%). As one student explained,
“because he [the interviewee] explained me the situation in this company and the industry in general and simple terms.”
Others (13%) were engaged the most during the class discussion. As another student explained, “when we were discussing the
top skills which are very necessary in this sphere, I really liked the process of sharing and structuring the ideas.” Others (6%)
mentioned the first time they heard of the assignment and the entire assignment. About a third of the students (35%) reported
not feeling distant from the assignment at all. Most (46%) reported feeing distant when they heard about the assignment for
the first time. As one of these students explained, “I did not understand the purpose of the assignment.” Others mentioned
feeling distant when developing the Informational Interview Guide, choosing the respondent, and class discussions. Not
surprisingly, the interview was the most affirming or helpful experience for more than half of the students (54%). As one
student explained, “I think that the interview was that thing that gave a lot of information and was very fun.” Others (16%)
mentioned that the interviewees themselves were the most helpful: “[my] interviewee’s answers were very helpful,” “the
advice of that person was very helpful,” and “the manager was very eager to answer my questions.” Another third of the
students found classroom discussion and presentations of the two profiles the most helpful and affirming. One student wrote,
“Presentations of other groups helped me broaden my knowledge about other spheres.” Another student explained, “It was
really interesting to know about managers’ work in different fields.” Most students (65%) did not report anything puzzling
about the assignment. Many were puzzled by different aspects of the interview, such as little time to ask all questions, “talking
to a complete stranger,” “first minutes of the interview”, or “meeting a real manager for the first time.” Several people
commented on being frustrated when the interview had to be postponed or when the interviewee was late for the interview
or joked during the interview. The last question in the Questionnaire asked the students to identify what surprised them the
most. The students gave a wide range of answers. Some (45%) found the assignment itself surprising: “The assignment was
surprising and not the same as in other classes.” Students (35%) also commented on how difficult it was to take an interview:
“I was surprised that I was brave enough to conduct the interview” and “I am glad I survived the interview!” Others (20%)
mentioned to be surprised, for example, by the number of skills and tasks mangers have, the differences in managerial skills in
different industries, and that managers do not necessarily have degrees in management.
5. Reflections on the results
The purpose of the study was to explore whether this assignment, when modified, could help second-year management
education students in understanding the profession of a manager. The results showed that overall the students learned more
about the profession of a manager and got an insight into careers in the chosen industries and companies. The average score of
4 out of 5 on the first part of the Questionnaire could be considered high. However, this average score could have been
negatively affected by the students’ misunderstanding of the assignment. Those students who decided not to pursue the
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Table 4
Results of part 3 of the informational interview evaluation questionnaire.
Reactions
Instance(s)
%
Engaged
During the interview
During the class discussion
The first time they he…